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B. F. HURST. 

District Fruit Inspf.ctor for District No. 5. 



THC 

rruit Grower's Guide 



DLshicr rriiit Inspcx tor for DLsfrict Mo. .s. 



^* F. Hurst, 

Boise, 






eorYRIOHT APPIJRD FOR. 






Contents. 



v\^^ 



I. 



A Tree. 

Heart and Sap Wood 

Its Parts and Their Activities 

Leaf Buds and Fruit Buds. 

The Leaf 

The Flower 

The Trunk or Stem of the Tree 

The Sap and Its Movenients 

The hife of the Tree 

Roots 

II. 

Buying of Trees 

Cleati Culture 

Cover Cro]i Culture. 

Diggin.y the Holes 

Heeling in a Tree 

Making of Orchard 

>.Iethod of Blasting Where the Tree is to Set 

Selection of l,and 

Scale of \'arieties of Fruits, Ciiving Size, Uuality, 

Color, Form, I'lavor 32- 

Season Use and Origin 

Setting Out the Tree , 

Varieties (,>( Fruits 29-30- 

When to Set Them Out 

III. 

Apple : 

Peach 

Pruning 

The First Year 

The Second Year. , . , .,. 

The Third Year : < ; 

Thinning the Fruit . . . .' 

IV. 
Oatheriiig the Fruit 



46 



Gathering the Apple 46 

Gathering the Pear 47 

Gathering the Peach ^ 48 

Gathering the Prune 49 

How to Pack Pears 48 

V. 

Irrigating the Orchard 50 

Smudge 51 

VI. 

Budding 59 

Budding in the Orchard 62 

Budding the Mary Ann Plum 63 

Cleft Grafting 56 

Grafting and Budding 52 

The Cost of Cleft Grafting 59 

The Bud 60 

The Stalk 60 

The Operation 61 

VII. 

Apple Scab 97 

Appearance of San Jose vScale 78 

Anthanamts Signatus 143 

Appearance of Blight n6 

Banding. 91 

Benefits of Spraying 64 

Bitter Rot of Apple 100 

Cotton Cushion vScale 85 

Curtis Scale 84 

Codling Moth or Apple Worm 86 

Curl Leaf of the Peach 106 

Currants and Gooseberry Borer 141 

Fall Web Worm 109 

Flat-headed Borer 92 

Fumigation 72 

Frozen Sap Blight loS 

Fire Blight 1 14 

Grape vSlug 107 

How to Spray 67 



]\f\\ Id Ai)plv tile Si>rny: 

I'oiinul.i No. 1 CiS 

Fonimla No. 11 -jo 

Formula No. Ill 70 

I'^onnula No. IV 71 

How to S]>ray 71 

History and Origin of San Jose Scale 76 

IlHl)its of vSaii Jose Scale So 

IIow to Treat San Jose Scale Si 

Honeysuckle Beelle ' 107 

Historical 115 

How to Take Care of It 6^ 

I\Icans of Dissemination 117 

M ildew qcj 

Oyster Shell, Hark Scale 82 

Other Helps 121 

Peach Tree Borer 9; 

Peach 'J\vit>' Borer 94 

Pear ami Cherry- Slug 96 

Powilery I\Iildew of the Gra])e 99 

Phvllaxera Vastarix 10^ 

Putnam Scale S^ 

Purple A])his 130 

Rose Beetle 107 

Red Rust on Blackberry 107 

Rose and Berry vScale. ,S6 

Red Spider 95 

Remeilies w? 

Remedies i i.S 

Spraying Puiii]> and l-ixtures 71 

Scions to Save Girdled Trees 74 

San Ji>se Scale 75 

Spraying for Ctidling Moth 02 

Strawberry Root-Borer 141 

Sy rphids 1 35 

'I'he 1 )iseased Tree 6-5 

The Spraying of 'J'rees and Shrubl)ery 64 

Treatment of Codling ISIoth 90 

The Canker Stage of Bitter Rot 102 

The I*ox Elder Bug 109 

The Forest Tree Tent Caler|)illar 1 10 

The .\])his or Plant I^ouse 122 

Treatment of A])his 131 

The Coccinellidae 132 

The IIemerol)iidae J37 

The Agrilus 142 

When to vSpray 66 

Woolly .'\phis 1 2S 



FOREWORD. 



The time has come when the successful 
oi'chardist is one of the most important fac- 
tors in the up-building of our State. The 
fruit industry of Idaho (only a few years ago, 
entirely undeveloped and unsystematic) has 
reached a rank second to none. In the past 
decade it has more than doubled, and every 
year shows a tremendous increase in the 
number of trees set out and in the profits real- 
ized from the enlarged shipments. From 
three acres of Anjou Pears, last year, Mr. H. 
C. Myers of Boise received thirty-two hundred 
dollars. The Idaho Horticultural exhibit 
at Chicago in 1893 won fifty gold, silver, and 
bronze medals, x^t the irrigation congress at 
Ogden, where all irrigation states were invited 
to compete, Idaho won first prize, a five- 
hundred dollar loving-cup, for the best and 
cleanest fruit, freest from all insect pests. 
At the World's Fair in St. Louis, Idaho 
received gold medals on a collection of fruit, 
and fifty-six gold, silver, and bronze medals. 

The climate is suited to the culivation and 



2 THE FRUIT CxROWER'S (iUIDE 

iiiipioveinent of the best species of fruit. 
The soil is unsurpassed. The state laws 
protect the fruit (growers, as well as the Inivers, 
from the incalculable evils of diseased fruits 
or trees. The throwing open of new lands, 
the development of irrigation projects (includ- 
ing the building of the great reservoirs,) the 
favorable market, all these influences are 
attracting capital into the ]:)lanting of com- 
mercial orchards. Nature, the government, 
and the market have formed a powerful 
trium\irate to secure for Idaho a leading 
and honorable ])lace among the fruit-produc- 
ing states. 

Now, while there is certain profit for every 
investor in orchards, it is absolutely necessary 
that the man who intends to go into the fruit 
business should inform himself fully concern- 
ing the best methods of carrying it on. 
What would be thought of any one's estab- 
lishing a firm to handle farm implements if 
he did not know a plow from a mower? What 
chances for success would a person be likel\- 
to have who tried to mine without knowing 
how to tell valuable ore from non-mineral 
quartz? It is no more . reasonable to buy or 
plant an orchard in ignorance of local condi- 
tions concerning climate, soil, best and most 
profitable varieties, and allied subjects. It is 



THE FRUIT GROWKR'S GUIDE 3 

to be regretted, however, that many such 
ventures are made. Unfortunately, their 
certain failures harm the community as well 
as the individual. When money is wasted in 
badly chosen stock, when the orchards are 
planted contrary to every sound principle of 
horticulture, when the trees are not properly 
pruned, sprayed, or watered, under these 
conditions the losses work serious injury to 
the orchardists and to his state. 

It is with the intention of doing away with 
at least a part of these injudicious investments 
and practices that I have prepared this 
pamphlet. For a number of years I have 
devoted mv entire time to the study of the 
orchardist's problems, and while I have not 
yet, by any means, solved them all, yet I 
believe that I am in a position to offer some 
useful suggestions and cautions deduced from 
my own and others' experience. It is the 
'purpose of this pamphlet to discuss the prob- 
lem of what kinds of trees to buy, their 
proper setting out, and how to care for them 
both in the healthy and in the diseased states. 
It seems to me that there should be a place 
for such a guide, and if it is of some use to 
any orchardist, it will have served its purpose. 

Throughout the l)ook acknowledgment 
has been made of the variour^ sources used in 



Ti 



4 THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

the preparation of certain parts, but I wish to 
make special mention here of my indebtedness 
to A. F. Hitt, State Inspector and Pure Food 
Commissioner of Idaho, for his helpful interest; 
to Alexander McPherson, former State Fruit 
Inspector and Pure Food Commissioner of 
Idaho, for his invaluable suggestions and 
critical reading of the manuscript; and to L. 
F. Henderson, Professor of Botany in the 
University of Idaho, for his generous permis- 
sion to reproduce here parts of articles pub- 
lished heretofore by him. 

B. F. HURST. 
Boise, Idaho, Sept, 5, 1905. 



The Life of the Tree. 



Altliougli it belongs more especially to the 
province of Botany to discuss the various 
parts of a tree and their functions, yet in a 
book which is meant to be a guide for the 
orchardist, it is certainly not out of place to 
give those points regarding which every man 
who is interested in trees should be informed. 

In compilation of these facts, I have relied 
almost entirely on articles previously pub- 
lished; and by the kind permission of their 
authors, I am here able to reproduce those 
articles in an adapted form. The works 
chiefly consulted are as follows: "American 
Horticultural Manual" by J. L. Budd and N. 
E. Hansen; "Somethingof Plant Physiology, 
Theoretic and Applied" by Professor L. F. 
Henderson, published in the proceedings of 
the Eleventh Annual Convention of the North- 
west Fruit Growers' Association. 



A Tree. 

ITS PARTS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES. 

The parts of a tree are the root, the stem, 
the leaves and the flower. 



6 THE FRUIT (IROWKR'S GUIDK 

ROOTS 

The roots serve the purpose of holding- the 
top erect and of supplying the water with its 
dissolved elements for sustaining growth. 

The deep roots (tap roots) mainly take up 
the water, and the surface roots chiefly take up 
nitrates and the other essentials of growth. 

The tap roots extend to a depth of twenty 
or thirty feet where soil is favoral)le, the depth 
depending on the nature of the su1)-soil and 
the location of the water level. 

The branch, or surface roots, reach farther 
than is ordinarily suspected; as a rule, they 
extend underground over an area as great as 
that occupied in the air l)y the spreading oi 
the l_>ranches above. 

If \ou examine the delicate end ot a \Oung 
root, inspecting it through even an ordinary 
magnifying glass, you will observe at its 
extremity a small brown cap fitting closely 
over the growing end and protecting it from 
abrasion as it pushes its wa)' through tlie soil. 
A little back of this cap, tiny finger-like, 
single-celled root-hairs begin to appear, and 
farther back these root-hairs are seen to be of 
continually greater length until their full 
growth is reached, when thev witlierand drop 
off. 

Through these little hairs covering a single 



THE FRUIT GR0\VER\S GUIDE 7 

zone near the tip of each rootlet, which can 
hardly be observed by the naked eye, takes 
place practically the whole of the enormous 
absorption of water and salt from the earth. 

The three most essential elements of the 
growth of a fruit tree are carbon, oxygen, and 
nitrogen. Carbon is provided through the 
leaves of the tree which are its breathing 
pores. Oxygen is furnished in the water. 
But nitrogen, although abundant in the air 
like the carbon, cannot be assimilated by the 
plant except by means of the roots. 

THE TRUNK OR STEM OF THE TREE. 

The stem or trunk is the axis of the tree, 
the part which bears all the other organs. 
The particular characteristic ot the stem is 
leaf-bearing. The place where the leaf or 
leaves are borne is called a node, and the 
naked place between two nodes is called an 
inter-node. The inter-node usually reaches 
its maximum length at the end of the first 
season. After this it increases in diameter 
but DOES NOT elongate. This point is often 
misunderstood. 

The stem growth is divided into two classes 
according to the age which the stems obtain. 
Herbaceous stems live only one year. The 



8 THE FRUIT (GROWER'S GUIDE 

woody stems live more than one year, some 
even more than a hundred years. 

As to cell growth, our cultivated plants are 
divided into two main classes; the "exogens" 
or outside growers, and the "endogens" or 
inside growers. Corn, asparagus, palm, fern, 
and all tropical fruits are inside growers. 
Trees are outside growers. 

In the first division fEndogens) the new 
cell growth is mingled with the older tissue, 
and growth of the stem is accomplished by* 
distension, or by pressing outward from the 
inside. This class of stem does not show the 
bark-wood and pith of the outside growers. 

The exogenous division includes all fruit 
and forest trees. 

HEART WOOD AXD SAP WOOD. 

In a one-year-old seedling, the stem is 
composed wholly of live or sap wood; but 
with increased age, the older layers, or rings 
of growth, are buried by the newer ones. The 
newer layers, with light color bark on the out- 
side are called sap wood, or alburnum. As 
the tree gets older, the inner wood becomes 
drier, darker and more solid. 

This interior dark wood is not alive. If 
kept from the air by the sap wood and perfect 
bark it may remain sound for a century or 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 9 

more, but if the air is admitted by cutting or 
by accident, it will soon make ?i rotten spot 
in the stem. 

The heart wood is not alive, as most people 
suppose, and, if it were, it could not carry 
any substance whatever to the tree. Only 
the roots can do this. Consequently, the 
boring of holes in the body of the tree, and 
the inserting of sulphur to destroy disease is 
entirely useless. 

The heart of the tree may be perfectly 
sound, but is dead to all life-giving purpose. 
The life, or sap wood, is not more than one- 
half inch thick, and carries the sap from the 
roots. Anything taken into the tree must be 
placed at the end of the hair-roots and must 
be of the nature of the tree-food. 

Mineral is not a food substance; conse- 
quently it will not be carried by the roots. 
Any break of the sap-passage would only be 
hurtful to the tree. 

THE SAP AND ITS MOVEMENT. 

The crude sap, which is gathered up by the 
root hairs at the end of the roots, is taken up 
by the larger roots to the trunk by way of the 
stem of the tree. It then ascends the tree 
rising through the sap-wood to all parts of 
the tree. The sap has a tendency to move 



lO THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE 

upward; and so all limbs that c^row stvaio'ht 
ovow iiinch lon^^er than those that bend down 
because they receive more sap. This sap 
starts the growth of the bud, which develops 
the leaf and the new growth. 

When the sap has reached the top of the 
tree it reverses its course, and on the way down 
carries food to all lower parts, especially to 
the voung roots. As the sap descends, it flows 
along the inner l)ark, going mainly through 
the sieve-cells. These lie just outside of the 
Canil)ium layer, or that la\er which )early 
adds to the growth of wood on one side and 
bark on the other. 

As the sap flows downward, all parts of the 
tree increase in size. If a label-wire is left 
on the stem of a young tree, we find that it is 
soon sunk into the bark and wood; and the 
part above enlarges, while the stem below 
remains the same size. This would surely 
show that cell-forming material descends near 
the Cambium laver. In the same way, if we 
remove a ring of bark in June from the stem 
of an apple tree, we soon check the down- 
ward movement under the bark. Presently 
we oljserve a process of healing over the 
wound l)y cell-formation in the cut surface 
al)ove the ring. As the season ad\-ances, 
we notice the ripening and matured condition 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE I I 

of the wood above has changed leaf-buds into 
fruit-buds. This device is one often resorted 
to in order to force a tree into bearing. 

LEAF-BUDS AND FRUIT-BUDS. 

Buds that appear in the axil of the leaf are 
in some respects like seeds. 

The grape, and some fruits and shrulxs 
grow from planted buds in the ground, with 
a little wood attached, and it may be said 
that nearly all buds of woody plants will grow 
when inserted under the bark of the variety 
of the same species. 

The greatest difference between the buds 
and the seeds is that the leaf-buds i^rotluce the 
individual parent without change, while the 
seeds re-produce usually the species, but not 
the variety. 

The fruit-bud of the peach and of the apri- 
cots glows on each side of the bud. In the 
apple and the pear, the fruit-buds are formed 
on spurs. 

Buds are usually formed in the nodes of the 
stem and in the axil of the leaves; but some 
species de\'elop buds under certain conditions 
at any point along the stem or root. These 
are called adventitious buds. Some of these 
are cherries, and plums. Blackberries and 



12 THE FRUIT, grower's GUIDE 

raspberries may develop such buds wheu cut 
back or wounded. 

On the end of the spur by the stem of the 
fruit, if there is any fruit on the spur, a leaf- 
bud always starts. If the tree is not too 
heavily laden with fruit, this leaf-bud will 
change to a fruit-bud. If the tree has not 
vitality enough to mature the fruit on the tree 
and change this leaf-bud to a fruit-bud, this 
leaf-bud will remain a leaf-bud, and the spur 
will not bear any fruit the next year. 

The fruit-buds are formed on apple trees 
through July and August. Any fruit-grower 
with experience can tell if the tree will bear 
fruit the following vear. 



The Leaf. 

( Written by Prof. I,. F. Henderson, University of Idaho. ) 

The leaf is a part of the plant beautifully 
adapted to certain ends. In most cases it is 
a horizontally expanded organ, with one side 
turned towards the sunlight, in order to 
enable it to catch as much of this as possible. 
To the naked eye it consists of a delicate frame 
work, holding out to light and air the green 
parenchyma or pulp that fills the intervals. 

The purpose of the frame work is a double 
one, to hold out in a horizontal direction the 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 13 

pulp, and to conduct rapidly water with its 
contents, called crude sap, to all parts of the 
pulp. If now we make a microscopical sec- 
tion of the leaf, and view it with a moderate 
power, we see a more wonderful mechanism 
for digestion and breathintr than the human 
lungs and stomach, on account of its sim- 
plicity. We see first an impervious skin or 
epidermas covering both sides of the leaf, save 
where little mouths, or ''stomata," leave 
ways open to the underlying tissues. These 
stomata are beautifully constructed so as to 
shut up when the leaf is lacking in moisture, 
and to open when there is an abundance. 
This controls transpiration, or loss of moisture, 
with exactness. At the same time they allow 
when open full egress to the air with its car- 
bonic acid gas — a most important thing. 
Right under each stomata is a small air cham- 
ber, into which the air can pass readily. Then 
the cells of the green pulp, called the "meso- 
phyll," are arranged very closely about these 
air chambers, and thus enable the air, when 
admitted through the stomata, to circulate 
freely amongst these cells of the pulp. If we 
look more carefully at one of these pulp cells, 
we find it irregular in shape, but with a uni- 
formity as to work and contents. Each has 
a skin, each living protoplasm, each green color 



14 THK FRUIT GRUWKR'S GUIDE 

l)odies, or chloroplasts, and each a nucleus. 
These minute color bodies are wonderful 
thinos and fill a wonderful position in the 
"world's workers," for upon their action the 
])lant depends for its own existence; upon its 
elaborated materials depend all parasitic 
plants, such as mildews, rust, scab and a host 
of others; upon it depend all saprophitic 
])lants, such as mushvo(;ms; finally upon it 
directlv depend all animals, whether herbi- 
\orons or carnivorous, and man himself. It 
is no idle statement to sa\' that were these 
little l)odies to be suddenly and universally des- 
troyed or cease for some reason their activities, 
all life upon the globe would cease as a con- 
st-queuce. These plastids, or green color 
bodies, are composed of protoplasm, and are 
colored green by the fluitl called cholorphyll 
which permeates them. Their office is to 
accomplish, what no chemist has ever been 
able to do or ever will do, namely, under the 
influence of sunlight, change the inorganic 
materials in crude sap into organized carbo- 
liN'drates, such as starch, sugar, cellulose, and 
many others. The crude elements needed, 
as before stated, are simply the carbon in the 
atuujsphere, and the water in the soil when 
taken u}) by the root-hairs. But protoplasm 
cannot exist without a fourth element, namely, 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 1 5 

nitrogen, nor conlcl it doits work in Iniikling 
up the carbohydrates; nay, none of the pro- 
teids, sucli asexist in grah.ani flour, beans, lean 
meat and a host of others, could be formed at 
all. The starch formed in this laboratory in 
the day, is carried away at all times while the 
leaves are on the trees, and nourishes not only 
the leaf, but flowers, stem and root. Truly 
we may sa\-, therefore, that plant growth is 
more downward and outward, than upward 
and outward. The wood which always forms 
above a cut, not below it, on a tree is further 
evidence of this. Hurriedly and imperfectly 
I have attempted to explain to you this 
wonderful change of the raw materials all 
about us into the higher elaborated material 
needed for plant growth, and now to a few 
practical details. 

It is now evident, why, when we cut off 
most of the roots of a ])lant, we should also 
cut down its top proportionally. Remember 
that no tree can al)sorb practically any crude 
sap except through its root-hairs, which are 
on the ends of the most delicate rootlets. 
As nearly all of these have been removed 
when the tree is taken from the soil, very 
little sap can ascend the trunk till more 
roots have been formed. If therefore all of 
the branches, and as a consequence all of the 



l6 THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

leaves, are left on that weakened tree, they 
will tend to do too much work for the poor 
loot system, and the plant will either die or 
be injured for many years. On the other 
hand how are you going to urge the plant to 
put out plenty of adventitious, or unusual 
roots, along the cut stubs lelt when the tree 
is planted? They can only be formed by 
having elaborated material sent down to 
them from above. Just as idle to expect 
them to form and do their work without this 
assistance as it would be to keep alive and at 
work a lot of coal miners underground with- 
out any provisions sent to them from with- 
out. The only true sources of supply for 
these forming roots are, first, from the re- 
serve starch laid aside in stem, branch, and 
root fragments and turned into digestible 
sugar under the warming influences of the 
spring sun; second, new material elaborated 
by the leaves. Of course, before any leaves 
appear in spring, the roots must depend up- 
on the first source of supply, but this will 
soon be exhausted and then there must be 
abundant leaves to furnish this material. 
So the proper balance is to make the head of 
the tree just large enough to do this work 
and no larger. 

If the plant to be removed and replanted 



THK FRTTIT GROWI'R'S GUIDE 



17 



be already in leaf, and especially if it be a 
large tree, as sometimes becomes necessary, 
the greatest care should be taken to leave a 
few strong leaders with their leaves, to cut 
back all the rest, and to cover their cut ends 
with tar, wax, or paint, so as to prevent the 
waste of sap and natural evaporation through 
the myriad open vessels which have been 
cut and ha\'e not vet healed over. 



The Flower. 

A knowledge of the parts of the flower is 
essential in detecting the varieties that ripen 
in the pistil before the pollen of the flower is 
ready for pollination. 

Flowers are for the production of seed. 
Stems and branches which for a time put 



COB- 




COR.^ 



Figure I. Divided Cherry flower. (After Goff.) "r," 
Calyx; "t'or.," Corolla; "/),"' Pistil; "5, "' Stigma. 



l8 THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

forth leaves for vegetation may at length put 
forth flowers for reproduction. 

The circle of green leaves around a flower 
is called the calyx or flower-cup. Each 
separate part of the calyx is called a sepal. 
The colored circle of leaves within the calyx 
is called the corolla, and each separate leaf 
in this group is called a petal. Within these 
two circles stand the organs of the flower. 
One of these (there may be a large group of 
them in a single flower j is called the stamen. 
It consists of two parts; the long slender 
thread-like stem is called the filament. The 
knob at the top is the anther. Anthers are 
filled with pollen, a powdery substance made 
up of minute grains. The second organ in the 
flower is called the pistil. It also is composed 
of two parts. The slender thread is called the 
style, and the little knob at the top is called the 
stigma. At the base of the style is the ovary. 

The pollen shed from the anthers, when 
they open, falls on or is conveyed to the stigma. 

These are afterwards fertilized by the ovary. 

Flowers of the orchard fruits are divided 
in two classes, Inferior and Superior. In the 
Inferior flowers, the fruit is formed below the 
calyx as in the apples, the pears, and most 
seeded fruits. In the Superior flowers, the 
fruit is formed above the calvx. This is 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 1 9 

the class to which belong the cherry, the 
plinii, and the peach. 

In the apple and the pear, the pistil and 
calyx grow together, and the fruit is prac- 
tically the enlargement of the whole flower. 
In this class of fruit, the calyx is shown at 
the eye of the fruit; while in the cherry; it is 
shown at the lower end of the stem. The 
Superior fruits, such as strawberries, rasp- 
berries, peaches, plums, apricots, and grapes, 
are more exposed when in flower to the frost, 
and dry air, and other weather changes. 
And the ovary of the fruit-bud is more likely 
to be injured in winter, than that of the 
inferior, since the latter are protected by the 
base of the calyx. It is also true, as a rule, 
that the fruit that forms above the calyx is 
not as well fed as those below, as the connec- 
tion with the leaves is not direct. 

When the stamens and pistils are formed 
in the same flower it is called perfect or 
hermaphrodite, as in most of our orchards 
fruits, and garden plants. But when only 
one sex of these essential organs is found in 
the same flower, it is called imperfect. Even 
when the flower seems perfect in all respects, 
it often, in the cultivated fruits, seems incap- 
able of self-pollination. This is not confined 
to the individual flower or to the flower of 



20 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE 

a single tree, or to a large block of trees. As 
a rule, large blocks of a single variety of an 
orchard-fruit have not proved productive. 
We know that the most profitable orchards 
are those of many varieties, one variety 
sometimes refusing to fertilize itself. 

The consensus of opinion at this time 
among experienced persons is that it is best 
to mingle varieties in a commercial orchard. 

Varieties of our fruit differ materially in 
their blossoming habits. Some varieties 
expand all their flowers in a brief period, 
others seem to have two sets of flowers. If 
the first blossoms are destroyed by frost, the 
the later ones are numerous enough for a full 
crop. 

The Making of an Orchard. 

SELECTION OF LAND. 

In the previous chapter, we have discussed 
the parts of a tree, their several functions, 
and the way in which the tree grows. Hav- 
ing reached now some understanding (how- 
ever elementary) of a tree, the orchardist is 
better fitted to go about the making of his 
orchard. 

In this undertaking, the first step, natur- 
ally, is the selection of land. Except in the 
arid belt, sloping ground is preferable, as the 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 21 

drainage will be good. Trees should not 
have too much water, because it cuts off the 
supply of air from the roots, tending to suffo- 
cate them, and they, as well as the leaves, 
are breathing organs. (It may be remarked 
here, in passing, that pitted fruits do not re- 
quire as much water as seeded fruits, and 
the planter should take these facts into con- 
sideration when setting out his trees.) 

x\n orchard on a slope has the advantage 
of air-drainage and is not so apt to be affected 
by frosts. This is explained by the fact that 
cold air being heavier than warm air, it 
always seeks the lower levels, and, hence, 
tends to slide oft" the hill-sides and settle in 
the lower places where frosts are found not 
only to be heavier, but to occur later in the 
spring. Due to this circumstance, it may 
often be observed that the orchard on the 
side of the hill will escape frost entirely, 
while that in the hollows below is fatally 
affected. In regard to the soil, it may be 
said that a gravelly or porous soil, several 
feet underlaid, is excellent, for it doubly 
assures good drainage. A rich, loamy soil is 
of course the most desirable. In the irrigated 
section, ease and thoroughness of irrigation 
are of as much importance as drainage; but 
it should be remembered that water should 



22 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE 

never be allowed to stand around the trees. 
Any land that grows tall, thrifty sage-brush 
may be counted on as highly desirable land 
for fruit-culture. 

THE PREPARING OF THE LAND. 

In the selection of land for an orchard, it 
is much wiser not to use virgin soil but to 
take, instead, soil that has been in clover 
and plowed under for a year or two, because 
the decomposed vegetation enriches the 
ground formiug the much-needed humus. 
Perhaps a few useful suggestions may be 
made here as to the proper treatment of the 
land ])revious to its conversion into orchard 
and during the time the trees are bearing. 
This cultivation may be one of two kinds 
technically known as, (ij clean-culture, (2) 
cover-culture. 

CLEAN- CULTURlv 

I5y clean-culture is meant the plowing up 
and pulverizing of the land without using it 
for crops of any sort. 

In all districts where the rain-fall is not 
sufficient for natural growth, or where there 
is a scarcitv of irrigation water, it is abso- 
lutely necessar}' to cultivate the soil of an 
orchard. Otherwise, it will never be suffi- 
ciently damp. The force of capillary attrac- 



THE FRUIT GROWER S GUIDE 23 

tion in all firm soil is constantly sending the 
moisture upward to the surface. As fast as 
the top layer becomes dry, the moisture 
arises from below, and it also in turn is evap- 
orated. During a long dry summer, this 
process will continue to a depth of several 
feet, the top layer of dirt becoming as hard 
and dry as a brick. Now, if the surface soil 
is broken up by cultivation, this difficulty 
will be avoided, because the force of capillary 
attraction will be destroyed as soon as the 
layers of soil are disturbed. The particles 
become so separated that the mutual connec- 
tion of the small inter-spaces no longer 
exists. 

To reach the most perfect results, the soil 
should not only be broken up in rough clods 
(though this treatment is better than none 
at all) but should be thoroughly pulverized. 
When this latter process has been well done, 
free access of air is not permitted to the 
lower strata at all. Fine loose earth acts as 
a blanket to retain the moisture, as only the 
surface which comes into immediate contact 
with the air dries out. The moisture which 
is preserved below is then kept for the exclu- 
sive use of the tree or plant. As fast as the 
supply is exhausted, it is replenished from 
the soil below; or, if evaporation ceases, the 



24 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDK 

roots will extend thronoh the moist, loose 
soil and get all their needed nourishment. 

This theory may be easily tested. Re- 
move the top dirt from a considerable space 
in a well-cnltivated garden or orchard, and 
you will find moisture two or three inches 
from the surface; while the same cpiality of 
land on an adjacent spot left uncultivated 
will prove to be dry to the depth of several 
feet. It will be nothing but hard earth, dry 
as a bone. In such a hard baked earth, the 
sun heat is also conducted downward very 
rapidly on a hot day, in many cases, of 
course, doing serious injury to the roots. A 
well-cultivated surface acts as a mulch, pre- 
venting rapid evaporation and the conveying 
downward of too great heat. 

The depth of cultivation or the thickness 
of the mulch must be sufficient to prevent 
the access of dry air to the firm soil below. 
The drier the soil, the thicker the mulch 
• or pulverization should be. Two or three 
inches over a hard pan-layer formed in some 
soils by cultivation, will not hold moisture 
well. Generally the cultivation should go 
twice that depth. Of course the capillarity 
in a heavy soil is much greater than in a 
light soil, and the pulverization of the sur- 
face is, therefore, much more ditficult. 



THF. FRUIT GROWIvR'S GinDP: 25 

When pulv^erizatioii is not thoroughlv done, 
the soil shonld be broken np to a greater 
depth in proportion. A well-cnltivated snr- 
face will both catch and hold the water more 
easily. Water flows off qnickly from a hard 
snrface to a lower level before it can pene- 
trate the solid snrface. Loose soil is ])orons 
like a sponge and holds all that falls npon it, 
the excess seeping away. 

Let this be the grower\s watch-word — 
"Cnltivate in winter to receive the nioistnre. 
Cnltivate in the snmmer to retain the mois- 
tnre." Rain that falls in the winter seasons 
is often lost by too late cultivation. Do not 
fail to plow in the winter whenever it can be 
done withont fear of washing away the soil. 
This is the best way to store the water be- 
low. It is a sad waste to allow the rain- 
water that is enriched by air-washing to 
carry away the soil particles. There resnlts 
a three fold loss — the fertility of the rain- 
water, the loss of the silt, the most fertile 
part of the soil, and the loss of the moistnre. 
It is best to plow early in the spring, when 
the vegetation has a good start, bnt when it 
is not yet so high bnt that it can be well 
tnrned nnder. The weeds at this time are 
not so woody and will rot more readily, thus 
acting as a fertilizer. 



26 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE 

Clean-ciilture of the orchard and small 
fruit plantation, without the application of 
manure or other organic material, will soon 
so change the mechanical conditions of the 
soil that air cannot enter to give life to the 
protoplasm of newly formed and growing 
roots. The continual clean-culture without 
the aid of vegetable matter will soon take 
the humus from the soil, starving the roots 
and whole plant growth bv lessening the 
suppl)- of nitric acid and its combinations 
with alkalies, such as nitrate of soda and other 
useful plant nutriments. 

COVER-CROP CULTIVATION. 

In all irrigated districts, and in districts 
where the rain-fall is plentiful, the cover-crop 
is more beneficial than the clean-culture, and 
should by all means be preferred. 

The best crops for this purpose are peas, 
beans, cowpeas, vetch, or other leguminous 
plants for soil covering during late summer 
and fall and for winter protection. This 
makes the conditions more like a natural forest, 
and supplies nitrogen and surface soil humus. 

While the orchard trees are young, and the 
sui:)ply of plant food is plentiful, buckwheat 
makes a good shade for holding the moisture. 
It covers the ground earlier than the crops 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 27 

first mentioned, and is easier to turn under. 

When a crop of oats and wheat is desired, 
they may be used provided the soi! is well 
broken up immediately after harvesting them. 
Neither one adds any virtue to the soil, but 
rather takes from it. They may be used 
merely for shade and for helping to bear the 
expense of the orchard until the trees begin 
to bear fruit. It is a good plan to sow clover 
with the grain (oats being preferred among 
the grains.) Then plow the clover under late 
in the fall or in the early spring. This pro- 
cess should be pursued for at least six years. 
Afterwards, it should be sowed to red clover. 
Let the second crop of the second or third 
year go to seed, then plow it under in the tall. 
The decay of vegetation makes humus and 
enriches the ground, and the great mass of 
the many rootlets acts as a conductor to con- 
vey the moisture to a greater depth. When 
well-rotted, it makes the ground porous, thus 
aiding sub-irrigation. The ground should be 
leveled and ditches made at once, as the 
young clover may come up right away, and 
it should not be molested. 

Some authorities contend that this kind of 
culivation is a remedy for pear blight. 

Many think that the continued orchard- 
culture uses up the moisture and robs the 



28 THK FRUIT ORO\VKR\S (U'IDK 

fruit trees of it at the time when it is most 
needed for perfeet maturation of the frnit. 

The first and even second leguminous 
cover-crop sown in a liearing orchard will 
result in diminished supply of soil-moisture, 
as compared with the method of continual cul- 
ture, yet this is favorable to the perfect 
maturing of comparatively young trees, and 
the turning-under of the two or more leg- 
uminous crops makes a fine supply of humus 
and nitrogen, which so changes the mechani- 
cal texture of the soil that it retains the 
moisture all through the seas(in better than 
the cultivated orchards that ha\e less of the 
nitrogen and humus. 

I Fur a more exhaustive ami thoroughly trustworthy 
treatment of the subject of clean-culture, consult "The 
California l^>uits" by K'lward J. Wickson, who has kindly 
consented to the adaption of his chapter on the topic 
which appears in this volume, h'or an exellent presenta- 
tion of cover-culture, consult "American Horticultural 
Manual" by J. L Hudd, by whose kind permission his 
treatment of tlie matter has been used as a basis of discus- 
sion here.) 



Buying the Trees. 

If, now, the orchardist has properly pre- 
]xired his land, his next problem will be a 
judicious selection of trees. In this connec- 
tion it is important that he should know 
where and what he should buv. 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 29 

Where to buy: Buy all trees of a houie 
uursery-mau, and select them yourself, so 
that you may be sure of getting good thrifty 
trees. Home nursery-men give a bond as to 
the proper name of the tree and as to its 
healthy condition. Trees that are shipped 
in are very often improperly labeled, as many 
orchardists have found out to their sorrow; 
and in many cases the plants are not in good 
condition. 

What to buy: A yearling tree is prefer- 
able because it has not been ruined by im- 
proper pruning. For a commercial orchard, 
select not more than eight varieties of apples. 

Below is given a list of varieties which I 
should consider preferable for an orchard in 
this section : 

Eight Varieties of Apples: 
(i) Yellow Newtown 

(2) White Pearmain 

(3) Winter Banana 

(4) Grimes' Golden 

(5) Roman Beauty 

(6) Jonathan Wine Sap 

(7) iVrkansas Black 

Four Varieties of the Late Pear: 
(i) Anjou 

(2) Winter Nelis 

(3) Duchess de Bordeaux 
(4J Clairgean 



-) THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

Tu'o \"ai"ieties of the Kaily Pear: 

(i) Bartlett 

(2) Flemish Beauty 
Two Varieties of the Prune: 

(i) Italian 

(2) Dawson 
F'ive Varieties of the Peach: 

(i) Early Crawford 

(2) Pllberta 

(3) Champion 

(4) Globe 

(5) Wheatland 

Two Varieties of the Nectarine: 

(i) Early Newington 

(2) Early Violet 
Three \'arieties of the Blackberry: 

(1) Wilson 

(2) vSnyder 

(3) Kittatinny 

'l\vo \'arieties of the Dewberry: 

(1} Lucretia 

(2) Mayer 
Red Raspberry: 

(1) Cuthbert 

(2) Logan — Cross between the red rasp- 

berry and the blackberry 
Three Varieties of the Gooseberry: 
(i) English Favard 
(2) Chautauqua 
(3J Industry 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 3I 

Two Varieties of the Strawberry: 
(i) Green ]\Iary 
(2) elide 
In addition to this rather informal list, I 
offer a table of frnits which I have arranged 
in the order of their preference according to 
my judgment. P'or a still fuller list of tables 
consult government reports. 



Al'FLKS. 
I K}'.v. Sl/E, scale 1 tn Id. 1. vciv snuill: Id, very large. Fcikm: 
c, cuiiital; 1, irit'nular; o, oblatu: nb, ubloiifi; ov, ovate-; r, louiKi. 
Color: d. ilark; tx, gieen: r, red; ru. russet; s, striped; \v, white; 
y, yellow. Flavor; a, acid; in, mild; s, sweet. Qu.ality, scale 1 to 
iO; 1, very poor; 1(», best. Se.ason: e, early; ni. niediuni; 1, late; 
V, very. Osk: c. cider; d dessert; k, kitchen; m. market. Abbrevia- 
tions of names of places of origin: Am., .America; Eng., England; 
Eur., Europe; Fr.. F'rance; (ier., Germany; Holl., Holland; Ont., 
Onlaiio; Rus.. Russia; Scot., Scotland.] 



Yellow Nevvtawn 

White Winter Pearniain 

Winter 15:ni;uia 

(irime's (iolden 

lonathan 

'Koine IJeauty 

Witus:ip 

.Arkansas l>l.ick 

Spitzenburg 

(iravenstein 

Yellow BellHower 

York Imperi:il 

S\va;ir- 

Northern Spy 

Rhode Ishind (ireenlng. . 

Hhie Fearmain 

(iano 

Hen lliivis ". . . . 

;\li:x,iniler 

I'ewaukee 

Early Harvest 

Red .\strachan 

Red J une 

Rambo. 





.^ 








H 










a 






►4 


o 


^ 


a 




J 


« 


N 


D 




o 


C/} 


O 


'w) 


fe 


7-S 


M(» 


ye 


ro 


5-1) 


8-9 


vr 


robe 


8-'J 


8-9 


wyr 


rob 


;)-(■) 


L|-l(l 


v 


roc 


(i-7 


8-9 


vr 


re 


8-9 


f,-7 


vrs 


re 


;)-(> 


7-8 


vr 


rob 


7-8 


7-8 


\v 


ro 


(•>-8 


10 


I 


obc 


8!l! 


8-9 


vr 


oi 


8-9 


8-9 


V 


obc 


7-S 


0-7 


vrs 


010 


7-8 


V-8 


KV 


ro 


8-9 


8-9 


vrs 


roc 


8-9 


7-8 


sv 


ro 


8 9 


() 


dis 


ic 


1 ,-» 


.)-li 


V rs 


01 


ti-9 


4-> 


vrs 


rov 


9-10 




vrs 


oc 


8-9 


4-.-) 


vrs 


ro 



o-r. 

7-8' 
3-4 



;-8; 



Missouri Pippin 5 (V o-4 yrs 



3-4: C 



Early str;i\\ iicirv 

Maiden lilush...' I o-tl 

Wagener (> 7 

Walbridge 5(1 

Willow 'Vwig I (i-7 



vr^ 



.Slavnum . 



8-9 8-9 



5 G| yr| 
7-8 yrs: 
5 () vrs 
■yr 



r 
t) vrs 



Snnth Cider 10 

Stark j 8-9| o-O 

Stearkev ' 7-8 8 yr 

Summer Pe:n'main ' 5-0 9-10 rrw 

Summer (Jueen ■ 0-7j 5-0 yrs: 

'J'almaii Sweet < 5-0 7 y 

Tompkins King 8-9, 8-9 yrs 

lefferies : 5-0: 8-'.)i yrs 

Limbertwig 0-71 ;)-C, gy,- 

M aim I 0-7; 4-5 vg 

M inkier | 0-7J 0-8' g'yr 

Northwestern Greening... . 8-9 0| gv 

Fallawater .''.... 9-10 ygr 

Fall (Jrange : 8-9! r,-4 yr 

Fall JenetiUi i 5-0; :i-4 yr 

Famense ' 5-0 8 9 yrs 

F'anny 1 7-8! 5-0. rs 



(iolden Kusset ' 4-0 

Baldwin ' 7-8, 

Rietigheimer 18-10 

Twenty ( )unce 9-10 ( 

Welthv 

Woll Kiver 

^'c•llow Tr.insp:irerit . 



-ti yrU| 



5-0 
4 


yr 
wgri 
\rs 


0-7 


>» 


;i-0 


wrs 


.1 1) 


W \' 




ml 



in:Te 



mo' ml 
111, eni 



liuik'; 

km 



ciC! m 111 



in 


vl 

1 


in 


em 


ni 


mi 


111 


m 


111 
:i 


111 
e 



dm 



km 
m 
km 
dkm 
km 
km 



PEARS. 



Anjou 

Duchess 

Bartlett 

Kose 

Clairgean 

Clapp Favorite. 

Dayenne du 

Danas Haver. . . 

Beurre 

Flemish Beauty 

Gifford ■. 

Gray Dayenne. 

Idaho 

Keffer 

Lawrence 

Josephine de.. . . 

Seckle 

Slieldan 

White Davenne 

Wilder. .' 

Winter Nelis . . 



m ' O 



8-9 
5-9 
6-8 
8-9 
4-5 
0-6 
8-9 
9-]0 



9-10 
7-8 
8-9 
7-8 
7-8 
8-9 
3-4 
7-8 
8-9 
5-6 
5-6 
8-9 
7-9 
5-6 
5-6 
3-4 
fi-8 
5-6 
4-5 
5-6 



0-6 
6-7 
7-8 
8-9 
8-9 
3-5 
7-8 
7-8 

9-10 
7-8 

8-10 
7-8 
8-9 



U 

gre 

gyr 

yrur 

ynir 

yc 

yc 

yc 

vru 

ygni 

yrur 

gyr 

ru 
yru 
yru 

yru 

gy 

Igrurl 

gy] 
yi| 
yr 
yg 



obtp 

obiiv 

ob 

P 

P 

ob 

ob 
ro 
ob 
P 
ov 
ob 
ob 
ob 
ro 
ob 
ro 
ob 
ob 



bm 



]ap 



.isp 
jsv 
jsb 
]sp 
]s 
mi jsp 
mi jvp 
bmirich 
ml sv 
m jsp 
m| sp 
m jsp 
bm| jp 
m 




NECTARINES AM) PEACHES. (Peisica vulgaris.) 
Nectarines. (P. \'ulgaris var. L;uvis.) 

[Kky. — Size, scale 1 to 10: 1, very small; 10, very Urge. Form: 
c. compressed; o, oblate; ov, oval; r, round. Color: c. creamy; g, 
green; r, red; \v, white; y, yellow. Adhesion: c, cling; f, free; 
s, semicling. Quality, scale 1 to 10: 1, very poor; 10, best. Se.ason: 
e, early; m, medium; I, late; v, very. Use: d, dessert; k, kitchen; 
m, market. Abbreviations of names of places of origin: Am., Amer- 
.ca; Belg.. Belgium; Eng., England; Eur., Europe; Fr., France.] 



Color 



PEACHES. 



O* 



Early Crawfoid 8-9! 8-9 

Elberta 8-91 7-8 

Champion ! 7-8 7-8 

Globe j 8-9| 7-8 

Foster 9-10 9-10 

Wheatland 9-10| G-7 

Susquehanna 9-10 9-10 



Heath Cling. 
Late Crawford 
Lemon Cling. . 
Lemon Free. . . 

Stump 

Sneed 

Alexander 

Crosby 



8-9 


9-10 


8-9 


8-9 


8-9 


8-9 


8-9 


8-9 


S-9 


6 7 


fi-7 


4-5 


5-6 


5-6 


6-7 


7-8 




z 

o 




z 


f> 






<f 








t/} 


o; 


m 


U 


O 


m 


dm 


N ( 


ml 


m 


Ga 


em 


dm 


111 


m 


m 


Pa 


m 


d m 


Mass 


m 


dm 


N Y 


m 


dk 


Pa 


vl 


km 


Md 


1 


dm 


Am 


m 


dm 


SC 


1 


dm 


Ohio 


ml 


m 


N Y 


ve 


ni 


Tenn 


ve 


dm 


111 


111 


m 


Mass 



34 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 



CHERRIES. (Cerasus.) 

Hearts and Bk;arkhaus. (C. Avium.) 

I Kky.— Size, scale 1 to 10: 1, veiv snuill; lit. very large. Eorm: 
t, coiiiprt'ssed: h. heart shaped: o, oblate; r, rouiui. ("ui.ok: a, amber; 
b. black; p, purple; r, red; y, yellow. (JfALlTV, .scale 1 to 111: 1, very 
poor; It), best. Season; e, early; m, medium; 1, late; v, very. Use: 
d. dessert; k, kitchen; m, m.irket. .Mibreviations of ti;imes of places 
of origin: .\m., Anieru;i: En.tr., Eni;l<irid; Eur., liuropc; Fr., France; 
Ger., Germany; Out., ()nt;uio; Rus.. Russia.] 



Ding 

Black Heart 

Coe Transparent I 5 1) 

Centennial !i-l(l 





















.— 


V. 


^ 












< 




« 


^ 


^ 


o 





CD 


O 


u 


fc 


7-S 


8-9 


h 




0-7 


O-l 


b 


he 



Gui'j 



Downer... 
Eagle Ul.ick, 
Early I'uri 

Elkhorn 

Elton 

Hoskins 

Knight Early 

L:imbert 

Lewellmg 

Mezel 

X:ipoleon (Royal .\nn). 

Gxheart 

rUack Republican 

Rockporl 

\'ellow Spanish 

I'.liick 'J'iiitai ina 

Windsor 

G.nern(U Wood.. . . 



IMli 
.s-9 
;»-l(l 



y r 




vr 


oh 


b 


oh 


pb 
b 


rh 
h 


vr 


h 




rh 

oh 

l> 



-(>: 



8-9 ... 

<S-9: 8-9 
9-1(19-101 
9-1(1,9-11); 

8 7-8 
7-8 7-8 



yr 
1 

b 


h 
oh 


m 
m 
vl 


ra 


oh 


ni 


\''i 


oh 


em 


b 


)i 


em 


Ir' 


rh 


em 





f. 








o 






« 


a: 


X-> 


O 


dm 


Ore 


dm 


luir 


d 


Conn 


dm 


Cal 


dm 


.Mass 


dm 


Eng 


dm 




dm 


Fng 


dm 


Ore 


(1 


Eng 


dm 


Ore 


t)m 


Ore 


d 


Eur 


m 


Eur 


dm 




dm 


Ore 


dm 


Ohio 


dm 


Eur 


ilm 


Rus 


dm 


Ont 


dm 


Ohio 



"Heeling=in" a Tree. 

Alter the selection of trees has been made 
at the nursery, and the trees have been taken 
home, the next step is to take proper care of 
them until they are phinted. As soon as pos- 
sible after the trees arrive at the farm they 
should be '*heeled-iu." This should be done 
even though it is intended to plant them 
almost immediately, for unexpected delays 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 35 

often occur, and great damage may result if 
the process is omitted. By "heeling-in" is 
meant the protection of the fine roots so that 
they shall not come in contact with the air. 

Plow or dig a deep trench or furrow (a 
double furrow would be best) in moist, light, 
well-drained soil. Put the trees in singly, 
side by side; be sure that all the packing 
material is carefully taken away from the 
roots. Lay the tops all the same way; then 
cover well with loose soil, making sure that 
the soil sifts down well between the roots to 
exclude the air. Generally, this treatment 
will keep the tree in good condition for some- 
time if need be. If the trees have become 
dry before arrival, the bundles should be 
thoroughly drenched with water before they 
are "heeled-in." If they seem to be very dry, 
the tops appearing to be shriveled, the trees, 
after being well drenched, should be buried 
root and branch in the earth two or three days. 
If the withering is not too far advanced, the 
bark will regain its plumpness and smooth- 
ness. It is seldom that trees are allowed to 
get into such a condition by neglect. 

A good safe guard against confusion by the 
loss of labels is, when "heeling-in," to place 
each variety by itself in the trench. Usualh', 
nursery-men fasten a label to each small 



36 THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

bundle naming the varieties, and the novice 
is apt to lose track of the different kinds when 
"heeling" them in the trench, unless he puts 
each by itself, and leaves the tag to mark 
the lot of that variety. 



Setting Out the Trees. 

WHEN TO SET THI':.M OUT. 

For two reasons the fall is the best time 
for planting an orchard. In the first place, 
the ground is in Ijetter condition during that 
season; and in the second place, the orchard- 
ist is likely to liave more leisure then and 
can plant without feeling hurried. 

If the planting is left until si)ring, the 
late rains may keep the orchardist from 
planting until the season is so far advanced 
that the tree will not get a good start that 
year. 

HOW TO SET OUT THE TREES. 

When the orchardist is actuallv ready to 
set out his trees, he will find that the work 
can be greatly facilitated by following one of 
the plans given here. 

Stretch a wire across the field where the 
first row of trees is to be planted. On the 
wire, at intervals of thirty feet, tie a narrow 
strip of cloth, — apiece of red cheese-cloth will 



THE FRUIT CtROWER\S GUIDE 37 

be found most useful as its color will insure 
its being easily discerned. Then make pegs 
a foot long and having a thickness equal to 
the circumference of the tree. Set a peg at 
each place designated by the cloth. Now 
remove the wire and stretch it again across 
the field parallel with the first row and at a 
distance of thirty feet. The whole field can 
thus be laid off before digging the holes pre- 
paratory to planting. Or, if it is preferred, 
the first row of trees can be planted without 
further delay. 

Another and similar plan for laying off the 
ground is as follows: 

On the wire that was used in laying off 
the first rows, tie a cloth of a different color 
half way between the red strips, which will 
make fifteen feet between the two. In this 
way the wire will be stretched parallel across 
the field every twenty-six feet, and your 
trees will be just thirty feet apart, the stakes 
in one row being tied with the red cloth, 
and those in the other, with the contrasting 
color. 

DIGGING THE HOLES. 

Take an inch board four inches wide and 
five feet long, and bore an inch hole at each 
end and also in the center. Then saw out a 
''v" on one side of the board to the center 



38 THE FRUIT grower's GriDF, 

hole. Now lay the board down so that the 
peg- fits into the center hole. Dri\-e a peg 
into the ground through the holes at each 
end of the board. Remove the board and 
the Center peg. Dig a hole 2lj or 3 feet 
square where the peg was. When digging 
the hole, throw the top dirt over to one side 
of the hole, and the under dirt oxer to the 
other side. Dig to a depth of two feet, and 
then bore a hole live feet deep in the center. 
By using giant powder at this point, the 
hard pan that may be in the ground will be 
broken up, a surplus of water around the 
roots will be rendered impossible, and the 
tap roots will be able to descend to greater 
depths, in search of nourishment for the 
tree. 

.mi-:thod of blasting wherf: the tree 
is to be set. 

Use two sticks of giant powder for each hole. 
Drop one stick down in the liole. Loosen, at 
one end, the paper arou.nd the other stick 
of dynamite. At this end, insert a sharj) peg 
the size of tlie cap to be used. Attach the 
fuse to the cap, and place the cap in the end 
of the powder. If there is water in the hole, 
cover the cap wdth wagon-grease, then draw 
the paper, and tic it around the fuse with a 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 39 

string. Place this stick in the hole where the 
first stick was dropped, leaving the fuse about 
six feet long. The hole may be filled with 
water, or fine earth, but must not be tamped. 
Touch the match to the fuse. It is probably 
superfluous to say that the operator should 
immediately remove to a considerable distance 
from the hole. 

This method of digging the holes will of 
course be an additional expense, but when it 
is realized that a tree thus set out w\\\ grow 
more in four years than another, carelessly 
planted, will grow in six, it will be seen that 
the time and money are well spent. 

After the tree has been taken from the 
place-where it was "heeled in," it should be 
set out at once while the earth, which has 
been thrown out of the hole, is damp. 

All broken or bruised roots should be cut 
off with a sharp knife. Place the board with 
the pegs through the end holes. Set the 
tree in the hole. If the hole is found to be 
too deep, fill in with some of the top soil. 
The tree must now fit into the "v" in the 
center of the board. Place the tree in the 
hole, and tlirow in a few shovels of fine top 
soil. By grasping the tree firmly in the left 
hand and setting it, by moving it gently up 
and down a few times, and by w^orking the 



40 THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

earth up under the center of the roots with 
the fingers of the right hand, all large air- 
spaces around the roots can be got rid of. 
The place directly under the crown, where 
the roots often form a sort of cone-shaped 
cavity, needs special attention. A large air- 
space here means severe drying. He sure 
that this point is well covered with earth. 
The hole should then be filled, tamping well 
after each shovel of dirt has been thrown in. 
A tamper, shaped like a base ball bat, four 
or five feet long, and al)out three inches thick 
at the larger end, is excellent for this pur- 
pose. The rounded end will not easily in- 
jure the roots, and will be found small enough 
to work among them readily. When the 
hole is filled, a little loose dirt should be left 
on top as a mulch to retain the moisture. 
This should be piled i V- inches higher 
than the surface of the ground. 

It is not advisable to put manure in the 
hole, as it will heat and cause the roots to 
dry out, unless it is very well rotted. More- 
over, it may introduce fungus spores, which 
will prey on the roots, and it is also likely to 
interfere seriously with the packing of the 
earth around the roots. A mulch on the sur- 
face made of manure or old straw is not so 
objectionable, though anything piled around 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 41 

the trunk of the tree will make the bark 
more tender and more susceptible to injury 
after the mulch is removed. Such a mulch 
also tends to make the roots come close to 
the surface, and these soon dry out, if the 
mulch is not continually renewed or if it is 
removed entirelv. 



Pruning. 

THE FIRST YEAR. 

The newly set tree, which, as was said be- 
fore, should always be a yearling, must now 
be pruned so that the top may correspond 
with the roots. This should be done at once. 
If neglected, the tree will suffer. Cut the 
tree off two and one-half feet tall makiuir a 
sloping cut just above the bud. 

THE SECOND YEAR. 

When the tree is two years old, numerous 
small branches will have formed, and it will 
require more attention as to pruning. 

Select five limbs which are to be left on the 
tree, the first being about one foot from the 
ground, and the others to be five or six inches 
apart on different sides of the tree. These 
limbs should be clipped one foot in length, 
leaving the fifth on the side of the tree from 
which the wind blows the most strongly, — it 



42 TIIK FRUIT CxROWER'S Gl'IDK 

will serve as a balance. All other branches 
slKnild be clipped off just at the edge of the 
collar of the tree. 

THE THIRD YR.\R. ■ 

.\ third year tree will have small branches 
on each of these five limbs. Clip off all bnt 
I wo from each. The head of the tree is now 
]M-acticall)' formed. The prnning of the 
future has for its object the keeping of the 
tree free, sv) that the sun may reach the fruit. 
When pruning, cut the limb just inside the 
collar, because a limb, if cut too close, will 
lea\-e a sunken ])lace where insects may har- 
bor. If cut too long, water sprouts will come. 
.\ tree that is heavily laden must be pruned 
in thesunnner. Clip off half the growth that 
the tree has made. This should be done in 
June or ni,jt later than July i5tli. It checks 
the growth of the tree and causes it to send 
out fruit-bmls for the next year. Limbs that 
bend downward will be found to be greater 
bearers than upright ones, because the sa[) in 
a l)ent limb will flow more sluggishly, and the 
growth instead of going entirely into a limb 
will be di\'erted to the i'ruit-buds. The 
straight limb will piol)ably grow twice as 
much but will not send out anything like 
the number of fruit buds. 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 43 

Some varieties of apples will send out 
fruit-buds on the first year's growth; of these 
the Winter Banana is an example. 

As a rule, a limb will bear fruit the third 
year after its growth. The fruit-buds on an 
apple tree are formed in July and August, so 
that, in the fall, it may easily be determined 
whether the tree will blossom or not in 
the following spring. 

Pear trees should be treated in much the 
same manner as the apples. 

The treatment of the peach does not vary 
up to the end of the second year. As soon 
as the peach begins to bear, clip off half of 
the last year's growth or even more from the 
leaders. Form the tree into a goblet sha])e. 
Do this every year. The present year's 
growth of limb will bear next year but ne\er 
afterward. By pruning, new shoots will 
appear and a heavier crop of peaches will be 
ensured. As peaches differ from apples in 
one important particular in that they do not 
need the sun, whereas apples do, it should Ijc 
borne in mind that peaches should be pro- 
tected by heavier foliage. In order to accom- 
plish this, refrain from clipping the small 
branches that grow on the limbs. The best 
peaches will be found growing close on the 



44 TiiR FRUIT grower's guide 

limbs tlial are well screened by this young 
foliage. 

The prune and the plum require about the 
same treatment as the peach. 

THINNING OF THE FRUIT. 
The thinning of fruit is necessary for sev- 
eral reasons. It makes the fruit much larger 
and finer, and, what is of far more import- 
ance, it ensures the bearing of fruit on the 
tree for the following year; because any tree, 
if overloaded in one season, will bear scantily, 
if at all, the following season. 

PEACH. 

In the case of the peach tree, it is a singu- 
lar fact that the limb which bears fruit one 
season will not bear again, l^ach year new 
twigs are formed. Krom this fact, it may be 
seen that all the nourishment of the tree in 
one season must not be given to fruit, but 
some of it must be allowed to develop new 
branches which will be fruit-producing the 
next year. 

On a peach tree from five to seven years 
old, whose peaches will weigh two or three 
to a pound, only such a number should be 
left as would fill eight or ten ordinary com- 
mercial peach-boxes. (These contain from 
forty to fiftv of the size mentioned.) Fifteen 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 45 

such boxes represent the inaxiinuni bearing 
amount to be allowed on a tree from seven 
to ten years old. In order to make this esti- 
mate, count the number of peaches on one- 
fourth of the tree. After thinning them out, 
there should remain between eighty and one 
hundred peaches, or about two boxes. 

In thinning, the larger number shonkl be 
left near the main trunk of the tree, as the 
peaches grow larger at this point and are of 
better quality where they are protected by 
the leaves. In thinning peaches, it is well 
to follow the practice of leaving the fruit at 
intervals of from eight to ten inches. The 
distance will depend somewhat on the size of 
the limb. 

APPLE. 
The thinning of the apple should be done 
from the first to the fifteenth of July. At 
this time the large majority of the codling- 
moth worms are in the apple, and all wormy 
apples should be picked and put into a bas- 
ket. These apples should be given at once 
to the hogs, or should be put into a barrel 
containing water. Into this barrel should be 
poured one pint of poison spray mixture and 
a quart of '^Black Jack Oil." This will 
destroy all the worms in the apples. If the 
tree has no wormy apples, thinning should 



46 THK FRUIT GRUWKR'S GUIDE 

be clone by leaving one apple on each spnr. 
If the tree is even then too heavily loaded, 
take oft' more. The necessity of this is made 
clear when one looks ahead to the next year's 
crop. If it bears too mnch, the tree will not 
ha\e x'itality enongh to matnre the frnit, or 
to change the Icaf-bnd to a frnit-bnd. If a 
second thinning of the apple is made, it 
should be done about the tenth of August, as 
the second brocxl of codling-moth worms will 
be caught at this time. This date varies 
somewhat in different localities. 



Gathering the Fruit. 

GATHHRING THK ATPLK. 

An apple intended fc)r long keeping must 
be jjicked early. The Jonathan and most 
other varieties should be picked for shipping 
when the seed commences to Ijlacken, and 
when the fruit yields to pressure. If left on 
until full)- ripe and until the seeds are all 
black, the fruit will not keep. This applies 
to home storage as well as to shipment. 

The a{)ples should be carefully hand-picked 
into baskets. If to l^e stored, the\' should be 
placed carefully in apple boxes, not packed 
tight as for shipment. These boxes should 
be transferred to fruit-houses with as little jar 



THE FRUIT GROWER S GUIDE 47 

as possible. If apples are to be shipped a 
great distance, a la^er of pasteboard should 
be placed between ev^ery two laj-ers of apples, 
in packing. (Hood River packers use this 
method.) This would require the choosing 
of apples of uniform size. 

Apples should be side-packed. That is to 
say, they should be packed with the sides, 
and not the ends, up. The box will be fuller 
when it reaches its destination, and the fruit 
w'ill be in better condition. Leave the stems on. 

GATHERING THE PEAR. 

Stems must always be let\ on. 

Each pear must be wrapped separately in 
paper. 

Time for picking: The pear is ready to 
be gathered when the seed begins to turn 
black. Another successful way of determining- 
its readiness for shipment is to let the pear, 
as it hangs on the tree, rest in the palm of 
the hand. If, when the hand moves gently 
back and forth, the pear detaches itself from 
the tree, it is ready to be picked. This test 
should, of course, be applied to a number of 
pears before a decision is reached. Pears 
should never be allowed to ripen on the tree. 
The flavor of a pear (as is not the case with 
most other fruits) is improved by early picking 



48 THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

and by beino- stored away in a cool dark 
. place to complete its ripenino'. 

HOW TO PACK PEARS. 

The first row of pears (usually consisting 
of four, sometimes more if the fruit is small) 
is packed with the butts of the fruit toward 
the end of the box. The second layer (which 
always contains one less pear than the first) is 
placed with the stem-ends between the pears in 
the first row. All succeeding rows are packed 
in the same relative j.iosition as the second. 
Tlie third row has as man)- pears as the first; 
the fourth as many as the second, and so on. 

Xo iuterlayer of cardboard is used in pack- 
ing pears as in packing apples. 

In the second layer, the pears in the first 
row are placed with their butts in the hollows 
left b\' the stem-ends of the first row in the 
kuer below. There will always be one less 
])ear in the first row of the second layer than 
.in the first row of the first layer. When the 
box is full the pears should stand higher than 
the sides of the box; for fruit should fit so 
tightly into a box that it will not shake about 
and l)ruise badly in shipping. 

GATHERING THE PEACH. 
Peaches intended for shipment sliould be 
picked before dead ripe. They should be 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 49 

wrapped in two or three thicknesses of paper. 
The stem of the peach is removed. The box 
ordinarily contains two layers. It should 
have all small spaces filled with paper so 
that the fruit may fit very snugly. 

GATHERING THE PRUNE. 

The prune (Italian or Dawson) should 
never be picked until it has turned blue all 
over. The ripeness of the prune may be 
tested upon breaking it open. The sugary 
appearance of the meat and its sweet odor 
are the assurances that it is ready to be 
picked. Stems should always be left on. 

In the prune basket (of which there are 
usually four to the crate) there are three lay- 
ers, a piece of prune paper lying between 
every two layers. The largest prunes are 
saved for the top layer. 

Prunes intended for evaporation should 
never be plucked. They must be left on the 
tree until they ripen fully and drop to the 
ground of their own accord. They will then 
have much more sugar. Evaporated prunes 
(both Italian and French) should be put into 
small paper boxes containing from one to 
ten pounds each. This method of packing- 
would be of great advantage to the merchant 
who sells the j^i'i-iiiei ^"tl the fruit itself 



50 THK FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE 

would be much better and cleaner. If pre- 
pared for sale in very small quantities, prunes 
could be disposed of in large amounts to 
travelers on the train, lor many persons who 
jiow buy figs would gladly purchase prunes 
instead. 



Irrigating the Orchard. 

It would be difficult to state definitely at 
just what time to begin irrigating the orchard, 
because seasons vary so widely. In general 
it is best to wait until the trees are in blossom 
in the spring before irrigating at all. But if 
the spring rains hax'c been infrecpient and 
have ceased early, so that the ground has 
become dry, it is best to water the orchard 
even before the blossoms appear. When irri- 
gation is once begun, the ground should be 
kept very moist (and 1 even advocate frequent 
flooding ) until all danger of frost to the trees 
is passed. On any night which threatens a 
heavy frost, turn the water into all the irri- 
gating ditches and see that the ground is 
flooded. This will be found an almost infal- 
lible protection against loss by freezing. 

Frequency of irrigation depends very largely 
upon how the land lies and upon its peculiar 
characteristics. In general once every three 



THE FRUIT GR0WKR\S GUIDE 5I 

weeks should be sufficient. But if the land 
is very porous and has a decided slope, it will 
be found necessary to water it oftener. 

The question is often asked whether -or no 
an orchard should be flooded. It is main- 
tained by some high authorities that flooding 
would cause the ground to bake. This might 
be the case where the orchard is cultivated 
by the clean-culture method. But in the case 
of cover-crop culture, it would not. In the 
later case, flooding, while not absolutely 
necessary to provide moisture for the growth 
of the tree^ is }€t invaluable iis a protection 
of the crops against frost. 

Irrigation should continue throughout the 
summer and into September. In case the 
tree is allowed to get too dry in the summer 
its growth will cease. Later in the fall when 
the rains come and while the weather is still 
warm, the tree will make a new start. This 
second growth is injurious to the tree, for 
freezing weather is likely to come on while it 
is in progress, and the death of the tree will 
result. This is nu)re fully discussed else- 
where. 



Smudge. 

If the orchard is cultivated by clean-culture 
instead of by cover-crop culture, the best pre- 



52 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE 

veiitative of frost is not water but a smudge. 
In California the process of smudging is much 
more expensive and elal:)orate than that 
followed here. The plan usually adopted in 
this section is to distribute old hay and 
manure throughout the orchard and around 
all sides of it. The complete surrounding of 
the orchard is desirable because protection 
may thus be secured against a cold wind 
blowing from any direction. When the mer- 
cury begins to drop dangerously near the 
freezing point, the smudges should be lighted. 
The cloud of smoke permeating ev^ery corner 
of the orchard raises the temperature several 
degrees, and has in many cases saved fruit 
from total loss. 

If the orchard is flooded, smudges will 
probably be superfluous. The presence of 
water (whether running or still) should be a 
sufiicient protection. 

Grafting and Budding. 

It is desirable that every orchardist should 
understand propagation of trees. Often a 
poor selection of varieties are made, and it is 
advantageous to know how to make over 
an orchard of an undesirable variety into trees 
that bear finely flavored, healthy fruit. 



THE FRUIT GROWER^S GUIDE 



53 



There are two kinds of propagation, graft- 
ing and budding. In grafting, we have two 
methods technically known as whip-grafting 
and cleft-grafting. 

Bulletins on this subject issued by the 
Department of Agriculture at Washington 
have been very freely used in presenting the 
following facts, especially Bulletin No. 113. 

WHIP-GRAFTING. 

This style of grafting is the one almost 




^\ 



N 



yProCtoT 

Fig. 2. — Successive steps of whip-grafting; a, splice-graft; 
d, tongue-graft, parts separate; r, tongue-graft, parts 
united; d, waxed wrapper applied. 



54 THE FRUIT GROWKR'S OriDR 

universally used in root grafting. It has tire 
advantage of being well adapted to small 
plants, only one or two years of age, as well- 
as the fact that it can l)e done indoors during 
the comparative leisure of winter. The graft 
is made by cutting the stalk oft^ diagonally, 
—one long smooth cut witli a sharp knife, 
leaving about three-fourths of an inch cut 
surface, as shown in figure 'V?.'' Place the 
knife about one-third of the distance from the 
end of the cut surface at right angles to the 
cut, and split the stalk in the direction of itS/ 
long axis. 

Cut the lower end of the scion in like man- 
ner (Figure "(^") and when the two parts are 
forced together, as shown in Figure "r" 
the cut surfaces will fit neatly together^ 
and one will nearly co\'er the (Hher, if the 
.scion and the stalk are of the same size. A 
difference in diameter of the two parts to be 
united may be disregarded unless it be too 
great. After the scion and stalk have been 
locked together (F'ignre 'V/^'J they should be 
wrapped with five or six tuins of waxed cot- 
ton to hold the parts firmly together. While 
the top-grafting may be done in this way, it 
is in root-grafting that the whip-graft finds 
its distinctive field. Sometimes the entire 
root is used. The roots are dug, and the 



THE FRUIT GROWER^S GUIDE 55 

scions are cut in the fall and stored. The 
work of grafting may be done during the 
winter months. When the operation has 
been performed, the grafts are packed away 
in moss, sawdust, or sand, in a cool cellar, to 
remain until spring. It is important that the 
place of storage should be cool, or the grafts 
may start into life, and be ruined; or else 
heating and rotting may occur. If the tem- 
perature is kept low (not above 40 degrees) 
there will be no growth except callusing and 
the knitting of the stalk and the scion. 

In ordinary propagation by means of whip- 
grafts, the scion is cut with about three buds, 
and the stalk is nearly as long as the scion. 
The graft is so planned as to bring the union 
of the stalk and scion not very far below the 
surface of the ground ; but where the trees are 
required to be especially hardy in order to 
stand the hard winters, and the roots used 
are not known to be so hardy as the plants 
from which the scions are cut, a different plan 
is adopted. The scions are then cut much 
longer, and the roots may be cut shorter; and 
the graft is planted so deep as to cause roots 
to issue from the lower end of the scion. 

When taken up to be set in an orchard, the 
original root may be removed entirely, leaving 



56 



THK FRUIT GROWKR'S GUIDR 



nothing but the scion and the roots which 
have put forth from it. 

C LE FT-(; R A FT ING . 

This style of grafting is particularly well 
adapted to a large tree. Branches too large 
to be worked Ijy other methods, can be cleft- 
grafted. A branch one inch or an inch and 
a half in diameter a limb more than two ancl 




Fig. 3. — Cleft-grafling; a, scion; b, scions 
inserted in cleft, 

one-half inches should never be grafted) is 
severed with a saw. Care should be taken 
that the bark be not loo-sened from any por- 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 



>-)/ 



tion of the stubs. Split the exposed end 
with a broad thin chisel, or grafting tool. 
Then with a wedge or with the wedge-shaped 
prong at the end of the grafting tool, spread 




Fig. 4. — Grafting Tool. 

the cleft so that the scions may be inserted. 
The scion should consist of a portion of 
the previous season's growth, and it should 
be long enough to have two or three buds. 
The lower part of the scion, which is to l)e 
inserted into the cleft should be cut into the 
shape of a wedge having the outer edge 
thicker than the other. In general, it is a 
good plan to cut the scion so that the lowest 
bud will come just at the top of this wedge 
so that it will be near the top of the stalk. 
The advantage of cutting the wedge thicker 
on one side is illustrated in figure 3, which 



5H THK FRUIT (Grower's cu'idk 

shows how tlie pressure of the stalk is 
1)roii<;ht upon the outer growing parts of both 
scion and stalk; whereas, where the scion is 
thicker on the inner side, the condition would 
l)e re\-ersed, and the death of the scion would 
follow. The inijwrtance of having an inti- 
mate connection between the growing tissues 
cannot be too strongly emphasized, for, upon 
this alone, de])ends the success of the grafting. 
To make this contact of the growing })()rtions 
douljly certain, the scion is often set at a 
slight angle with the stalk into which it is 
inserted in order to cause the growing por- 
tions of the two to cross. After the scions 
have been set, the oi)eration of cleft-grafting 
is completed by covering all cut surfaces 
with a layer of grafting wax. 

The scions should be gathered in the fall. 
CHp off all the best and thriftiest shoots ot 
the present seast)n's growth (not water- 
sprouts. Kacli variety should be tied in a 
bundle l)v itself and labeled so that no con- 
fusion may result the next season. The 
clipped ends of the branches should then be 
buried from six to eight inches deep in a box 
of moist soil and placed in a cool cellar. 
Here they remain dormant until the next 
spring, which is the j)ro])er time for cleft- 
eraftiuu. 



THE FRUIT (iROWKR'S GUIDE 59 

THE COST OF CLEFT-GRAFTING. 

Experienced grafters charge two cents a 
scion. When the cliarge is three cents, the}' 
guarantee the growth of all the scions, the 
latter to be counted the following fall. Thus 
the price of working over the top of a tree 
would range from twenty-fi\'e to fifty cents. 
The new top of a tree thus cleft-grafted will 
reach the size of the original top in three 
years and will be l^earing fruit. This shows 
the advantage of cleft-grafting over the re- 
moval of an unsatisfactory tree and the re- 
placing of it with a young one of a diirerent 
variety. 

BUDDING. 

There are numerous styles of budding. It 
is the most economical form of reproduction, 
and each year witnesses its more general use. 

Some nursery-men have even gone so far 
as to use it as a substitute for all modes of 
grafting except whip-grafting in propagation 
of the dw"arf-pear. It requires less wood from 
which to take buds. A single bud does 
the work of three or more upon the scion 
used in grafting; but, while it is economical 
of wood, it is expensive in the use of stocks, 
— a seedling being required for each tree, — 
while with the piece-root system of grafting, 



6o THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE 

two, three, or more stalks can be made from 
a single seedling. 

The operation of budding is simple and can 
be done with great speed by expert budders. 
The expense, therefore, is not more than that 
of whip-grafting, although it has the incon- 
venience of having to be done during the 
busiest season, that is to say, in the months 
of July, August, and early vSeptember. The 
usual plan for a man is to set the buds, and for 
a boy to follow closely and do the tying. 

THi': i;ui). 
The bud should be taken from the wood 
of the ])reseut season's growth. Since the 
work of budding is done during the season of 
active growth, the Ijud-sticks are prepared so 
that the petiole, or stem, of each leaf is left 
attached to serve as a handle to aid in pushing 
the bud home when inserting it beneath the 
bark of the stock. This is what is usually 
called a shield-bud, and it is so cut that a small 
portion of the woody tissue of the branch is 
removed with the bud. 

THE .STOCK. 

The stock for budding should be at least as 

thick as the ordinary lead pencil. In the case 

of the apple and the pear, a second season's 

growth will be necessary- to develop this size; 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 6 1 

while, with the peach, a single season will 
suffice. Hence, peach-stocks can be budded 
the same season the pits are planted. For 
this reason, the peach is left until as late in 
the season as is practicable in order to obtain 
stocks of suitable size. 

THE OPERATION. 

Nursery Budding: The height at which 
buds are inserted varies with the tree. In 
general, the nearer the ground the better. 
The cut for the reception of the bud is made 
in the shape of the letter "T." Usually the 
cross-cut is not quite at right angles with the 
body of the tree, and the stem to the "T" 
starts at the cross-cut, and extends toward 
the roots for an inch or more. The flaps of 
bark caused by the intersection of the two 
cuts are slightly loosened with the ivory heel 
of the budding knife; and the bud, grasped 
by the leaf-stem as a handle, is placed under 
the flaps and firmly pushed into place. Its 
surface is entirely in contact with the peeled 
body of the stock. A ligature is then tightly 
drawn about, above, and below the bud to 
hold it in place until a union shall be formed. 
Bands of raffia about eight or ten inches long 
make a most convenient tying material. As 
soon as the buds have united with the stock 



62 THK FRUIT GROWKk'S GUIDE 

fwliich will occur in al)out twent)' days) the 
ligature should be cut in order to prevent 
oirdling- of the stock. This done, the opera- 
tion is complete until the following spring, 
when all the trees in which the buds have 
"taken" should have the top cut off about 
half an inch above the bud. 

BUDDING IN THE ORCHARD. 

In order to bud in the orchard, remove the 
top of the tree in the sj)ring. The tree will 
then begin to send out from its top numerous 
small shoots. P)Ud as many of these shoots 
as will give the tree a good Ijalance. This 
should be done in July, August, or vSeptem- 
ber of the same season in which the tops 
ha\e been remoxed. 

The operation of budding in the orchard is 
performed in exactly the same manner as in 
the nursery. Immediately after the buds 
are set on a limb its top should l)e broken off 
entirely or should be twisted sharply and 
left hanging down until the next season. 
This w'ould check the growth of the limb, 
and all the nourishment will thus go into 
the bud instead of into elongating the limb. 
The following spring the limb should be 
clipped with a sloping cut half an inch above 
the bud. If the limb does not heal over per- 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 63 

fectl)', it should be clipped again, this time 
closer to the bud. 

BUDDING THE MARY ANN PLUM. 

This is a plum that never sprouts from the 
roots. But if the top limbs of the tree are 
bent over and laid eight inches under the 
ground, each limb will take root. After they 
have taken root budding can be performed 
the same season. This will be a gain to the 
orchard of exactly one }ear over the method 
of planting the pit. 



The Diseased Tree. 

HOW TO TAKE CARE OF IT. 

It is a regrettable fact that orchards in this 
part of the country, and, indeed, all over the 
United States, are in such a condition that 
any pamphlet treating of tree-culture will be 
found chiefly valuable in its discussion of 
diseases of the tree. Every orchardist is con- 
fronted year after year with the serious prob- 
lem of ridding his trees of various pests if he 
does not want to see them die before his 
eyes, or at least cease to be profitable pro- 
ducers. 

Observation and experiment have not as 
yet by any means reached the goal; but they 
are making excellent progress toward it. 



64 THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

The present writer aims to describe the 
diseases that have come under his notice and 
that liave been studied by him; and to offer 
explicit directions concerning their diagnosis 
and treatment. The formulas and sugges- 
tions offered have all been successfully tested. 

THE SPRAVIN(i OF TREES AND 
SHRUBBERY. 

Too much prominence cannot be given to 
the matter of spraying. The subject is one 
of which every orchardist must nuike himself 
master if he would be successful. It is the 
purpose of the present article to explain as 
carefully as possible, of just what benefit 
spraving may be, at which seasons of the 
year it should be done, how to nuike the 
spray, and how to apply it. 

BENEFITS OF SPRAVING. 
The spraying of trees has passed the ex- 
perimental stage. Its value has been uni- 
versally demonstrated. It is now recognized 
e\erywhere as a most efficacious means of 
treating insect-pests. It will protect a tree 
from a new invasion of disease, and will 
check and utterly rout the progress of any 
already infesting the tree. The spray covers 
up cracks and wounds made by insects and 
keeps out parasitic fungi trying to gain en- 



THE FRUIT GK0WKR''S GUIDE 65 

trance to the cainbiuiii layer or inner-grow- 
ing" tissue. The rongh bark, which is likely 
to harbor many enemies ^especially the cod- 
ling moth) drops off, leaving the new bark 
perfectly smooth. In this, the insects can 
not take refuge. They remain on the ground 
instead of making their homes in the trees, 
and eventually many of them are destroyed 
by irrigation. 

In the case of trees already diseased, it has 
been conclusively shown that spraying is the 
only means of curing or even of saving the 
tree. If, for example, a tree attacked by the 
San Jose scale is left unsprayed, it will cer- 
tainly die in two or three years. Aphis or 
slugs, by destroying the foliage or lungs of a 
tree, so check its growth that in a year or so 
it will cease to bear fruit. Spraying is the 
only sure remedy for this condition. The 
eggs laid by the codling-moth miller on fol- 
iage or fruit can be destroyed only by a pois- 
onous spray, which both keeps the fruit from 
falling and also makes it larger and of better 
quality. Diseased rose-bushes or other flow- 
ering plants unless well sprayed will soon lose 
the beauty both of leaf and blossom. From 
these examples, it may be seen how incalcu- 
lable are the benefits of the process. In 
short, there is no insect-pest found in this 



66 THK FRUIT grower's ClUIDPi 

region that cannot be coped with 1>y an in- 
telligent use of the proper spray, 

WHEN TO SPRAY. 

To secure the best results one should know 
just when to spray. If it is not done at the 
proper season it is of no avail. To l.)e effect- 
ive, the time of spraying should be carefully 
determined by the condition of the plant and 
])y the sort of disease which has attacked it. 
If the spray is intended as a preventative of 
fungus disease, it should be applied early in 
the spring before the foliage starts. This, 
too, is the time to treat San Jose scale, aphis, 
and red spider eggs. If, however, the spray- 
ing is for insects that live on the fruit and 
foliage, it should be done at intervals through- 
out the summer. 

For codling-moth it should be done several 
times; the first time, as soon as the petals 
fall and before the cahx closes, since some 
varieties blossom for a period of three weeks; 
the second time, three weeks later, so that 
the poison may reach into the calyx of the 
last blossoms. After this it should be done 
every three weeks for seven times. (As 
some varieties of ap]3les, however, ripen be- 
fore this period, it will not he necessary to 
carry out in their case the entire series. J 



THE FRUIT GKOWKR'S GUIDE 67 

Spraying for slugs should be clone two 
weeks after the eggs are laid on the leaf of 
the tree. Aphis should be treated as soon as 
detected. An earnest orchardist will, of 
course, familiarize himself with the appear- 
ance of all these pests so that he may recog- 
nize them at every stage of their develop- 
ment. After he has once detected the 
-symptoms of the disease, and has diagnosed 
the case, he should be very careful to heed 
the suggestions concerning the proper season 
for spraying. Vigilance throughout an en- 
tire season is the price to be paid for healthy 
trees and shrubbery, and those who have 
neglected their orchards as the season ad- 
vanced have done so at their cost, 

HOW TO SPRAY, 

But it is not enough to appreciate the value 
of spraying or to be conversant with the 
periods at which the treatment. can be most 
effectively given. One must, above all things, 
know how to make the sprays; what ones to 
use in a given case; and how to apply them. 
These points, in fact, are the secret of the 
whole process. And it is just here, unfortu- 
nately, that orchardists make serious blunders. 
Either they do not know how to cook their 
sprays or they do not know how to apply it. 



68 THE FRUIT grower's GUIDK 

Whatever failures have occurred, — and they 
liave been both numerous and costly, — they 
are all, I firmly believe, to be traced to mis- 
taken methods of preparing- the material and 
to injudicious methods of using it. Ignorance 
on these points have cost individuals in this 
state thousands of dollars. The San Jose 
scale, for instance, has been the source of a 
great outlay on the part of orchardists, and 
yet it is gradually increasing. This dis- 
couraging fact is due in great part to the 
improper mixing and cooking of ingredi- 
ents. If the suggestions offered here are 
conscientiously followed, I believe that suc- 
cess will be assured. For all eating insects 
such as slugs, codling-moth, and peach-twig- 
borer, use poison, — arsenic of soda, or arsenic 
of lead being preferred. All sucking insects, 
as scale and aphis, should be killed by con- 
tact, — that is to say, by applying the spray 
directly to the insect. For this purpose, use 
lime, sulphur, and salt prepared as directed 
below, in the spring, but in the summer use 
whale oil soap and kerosene. For fungus 
diseases, use lime, sulphur, and salt in the 
spring and copper sulphate and lime in the 
summer. For detailed treatment consult 
Formulas I and II. 

FoRMUL.v I. To be used in the spring: 



THR FRUIT grower's GUIDE 69 

Salt, 20 lbs. ; vSulphur, 35 lbs.; Lime, 70 
lbs. ; Water, 100 gals. 

Put 60 lbs. of lime and 35 lbs. of sulphur 
in a barrel. Then pour in hot water just 
enough at a time to keep it from boiling over 
until the lime is slaked. Stir until thoroughly 
mixed. Cover the barrel. This mixture may 
stand from on.e to six hours and sometimes even 
twelve hours. It will usually be found most 
convenient to slake the lime and sulphur the 
evening before the spray is to be cooked. In 
the morning pour the mixture into a tank 
(capacity 100 gallons) which contains not over 
three inches of zvater. Boil thoroughly for one 
hour and a half. Take 10 lbs. of lime and 20 
lbs. of salt and slake in a barrel while the 
other ingredients are cooking. After the first 
part has cooked one hour and a half, pour into 
it the slakened lime and salt, and cook an- 
other half-hour. Then add enough boiling 
water from a second tank to make when 
mixed 100 gallons. It is now ready for use 
and should be hot so that the full benefit of 
the sulphur may be had. 

The great temptation in the making up of 
this and other formulas seems to be the use of 
too much water. If a greater quantity of 
water is used than I have indicated above, 
the entire effect of the sulphur and lime, is 



70 THK FRriT grower's Gt'lDK 

lost. Again, main- formulas (especialh- one 
from Ohio) do not give sufficient time to cook 
the materials properly so that the snlphur is- 
used before thoroughly dissolved, in which 
condition it is simply clear waste. In the 
powdered form the sulphur is of no use what- 
ever. I have tried as manv as twenty form- 
Tilas and find that in every case if too much 
water is used, some insects will not be affected 
at all; whereas if the receipt which I have 
given is exactly follovv'ed, all pests will be 
killed. 

Formula II. — For any insect to be killed 
by contact. 

Dissolve one pound of whale-oil soap in a 
gallon of water. Remove from tlie fire and 
add two gallons of kerosene, and churn until 
it forms a perfect emulsion. It will then be 
a creamy substance. This should then be 
diluted, the proportions of water varying 
with the kind of plant it is intended for. 
For apples, pears, and prunes, use 9 gallons 
of water to one of the mixture. For peaches 
or rose-bushes, use one gallon of the mixture 
to 15 of water. 

Formula III. — -For fungus diseases to be 
used in the summer: 

Dissolve six lbs. of copper sulphate fblue 
stone) in hot water, using a wooden vessel 



THE FRUIT GROVvKR'S GITIDK 71 

SO as to prevent corrosion of metal. Add 
fonr lbs. of slaked lime with the copper sul- 
phate, and mix well with 45 gallons of water. 
Then strain through a screen into the spray- 
ing barrel, and keep thoroughly stirred while 
spraying. 

Formula IV. — Spray for eating-insects: 
Mix I lb. of arsenic and 4 lbs. of sal soda 
in I gallon of w^ater. Boil 20 minutes, or 
until dissolved. Use i pint of liquid to 50 
gallons of water, and add 3 lbs. of slacked 
lime. 

now TO APPLY THK vSPRAY. 

Be sure that it is properly applied to the 
tree or shrub. The correct way is to begin 
at the top. Spray through the tree from 
every direction until every limb and twig is 
completely covered. Otherwise an insect 
will still live. When the branches are well 
coated with the calcium sulphide, the air is 
excluded, and the scale dies. When spray- 
ing for aphis, codling-moth, or slugs, cover 
every leaf on the tree. Otherwise the insect 
has a chance to keep on working. All too 
frequently the foliage is not really covered, 
and the codling-moth continues its raids. 

SPRAYING PUMP AND FIXTURES. 

One should have a pump with a guage and 



72 THK FRTTIT GROWKR S CrUinK 

keep a pressure of from lOO to 150 ponnds. 
The hose for each nozzle should be 50 feet 
long;. The rod should be 10 feet long- with 
a bamboo pole over it so that the hand will 
not be burned when spraying with the warm 
material. A lol)e-valve should be attached 
to the rod near the hose. The best nozzle I 
know of is the vSan Jose nozzle. It will last 
one season and is easily regulated. 

As to pumjvs, there are a great many 
kinds; some of them excellent, and man\- of 
them (and some of those are the most e.xpen- 
sivej of little or no account. It is, ofcourse^ 
the part of economy and wisdom to get a 
good pump. I should recommend the Stahl 
pump. Or the Kairbanks-Morse pump. 

FUMIG.\TI()N. 

(The foUovviiifj interestiiiif account of fiiniiLCatioii was.- 
eontril)ute(l by Mr. J. ^l. Caiii])l)ell. ) 

The formula used in fn ungating is as fol- 
lows: 

I qt. water, 15 liquid ozs. sulphuric acid, 
150ZS. bicarbonate of potassium, C. P. These 
ingredients should be put into an earthen 
vessel. 

In the first place one should have an air- 
tight house or one as nearly so as possible. 
The trees should be dried off so that there 
will be no water or moisture on the surface, 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 73 

for water will absorb the snlpluiric acid and 
burn the tree. 

Trees should be left in the house about 
forty minutes. If the weather is calm, I 
think the work can be done in less time than 
when the wind is blowing. It will not hurt 
the trees to leave them in the gas fifty min- 
utes if they are in proper condition. Trees 
infested with vSan Jose scale, green aphis, 
and wooly aphis were fumigated and after- 
wards examined by Mr. Alex. ^IcPherson, 
State Inspector, and he said he could not find 
life in either case. It is better to fumigate 
stock before it leaves out as the leaves will 
be wilted by the gas and sometimes killed. 
Our trees have always leaved out later. 

It is dangerous for any person to enter the 
house for at least an hour after the door is 
open, as one can feel the effects of the gas to 
a greater or less extent even then. Every 
care should be taken as one breath of the gas 
would be fatal . 

The room I use is studded up and down, 
papered with heavy paper, then sided with 
shiplap on the outside. On the inside it is 
boarded with shiplap; then heavy paper was 
put on with paste. The size of the room is 
15 feet by 11 feet by 8 feet, containing in all 
1320 cubic feet. 



74 THR FRTTIT OROWRR's (it'IDK 

SCIONS TO SAVR (ilRDLRD TRRRS. 
(Anitricau Horticultural IMamial. ) 
YouuL^ orchard trees are often girdled in 
winter by mice, ral)l)its, and sometimes by 
sheep. If sawed off l)elow the injnrv they 
nsnally fail to L^row from the stnb, as Ijuds 
are slow in development at that point, and 
the sa]i"pressure, as the heat comes on, 
brin_^s about ferment and low vitality of the 
stnb and the roots. Such trees can be saved 
1)y cleft-grafting of the stnb. A scion is in- 
serted on both sides of the stnb to favor the 
lieabng of the wound. If both grow, the 
weaker one is cut back after making growth 
enough to help in co\'ering the wound on 
that side with cell-growth. The well estab- 
lished stub will give rapid growth from the 
strong buds of the scion, and in one season 
dex'elop a tree with side branches. Trees 
saved in this way will come into bearing 
about as soon as those not girdled set at the 
same time. This plan is better to save 
young orchard trees than inserting scions to 
bridge over the stem injury. But where 
fjuite large trees are disbarked in any way in 
the dormant season, it is best to spring in 
scions as shown bv figure 5. When the bark 
begins to peel in spring", scions somewhat 
longer than the space to be bridged are cut 



THK FRUIT grower's GUIDE 75 

to a wedge at each end as for cleft-graftiiio-, 
and l)y bending the scion, the wedge ends 




wy^i^^^:' 



y;/- 



e 



Fissure 5. 

are slipped between tlie bark and wood 
through openings cut alcove and below th 
injury. The parts are waxed, and then the 
whole is covered with burlap or old cloth. 

THE SAN JOSE SCALE. 
One of the most interesting as well as notor- 
ious of insects is the San Jose Scale, which 
had its starting place in America in the Cali- 
fornia town for which it is named, and which 
has become famous among orchardists the 
world over on that very account. The tiny 
scale has, in fact, been the means of making in- 
sects internationally important and of giving 
them a prominent place in the regulation of 
commerce. Its discovery and investigation 
have aroused both at home and abroad general 
and keen interest in the whole subject of insect 



76 THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

control. And this pest has been the indirect 
means of tlie findino- (nit of effective and val- 
uable methods for checkino others. 

HISTORY AND ORIGIN. 

(This section was adopted from Year Book of 1S99, 
U. S. Department of Atjricultxire). 

The story of the origin and career of this 
insect is not without interest and has been 
the sul)ject of much dispute and study. It 
was first noticed in this country in the grounds 
of Jame Lick in San Jose in the early seven- 
ties, and from there it was known to have 
spread to other orchards which had direct 
communication with those of Mr. Lick. He 
was a great lover of imported trees and plants, 
and it was naturally inferred that in some of 
these importations he had introduced the in- 
sect. However, as ]\Ir. Lick's death occurred 
before the iiu-estigatiou was well started, 
it was impossible to trace his importations. 

The United States government then sent 
entomologists to eastern countries mainly to 
Japan and China; and some investigators 
went to Kurope. The scale was found in 
many places, and, in nearly all cases, it was 
observed that the original nursery-stock had 
been brouglit from the United vStates. In 
China, the Commission found Haw apples, 
the native pear, and the crab-apple infested. 



THE FRUIT GROWER S GUIDE 77 

This was a significant discovery. The Haw 
apple is a wild fruit growing on the hill-sides 
of that section of China, and the native crab 
and pear have grown there ininieniorially. 
Therefore the occurence of the vSan' Jose scales 
on these fruits had but one explanation, — 
that in this region it was a native. No 
United States importations had reached that 
place. The conclusion seemed to be estab- 
lished that Mr. Lick had brought it to Amer- 
ica in some nursery-stock imported from North 
China. It is the general belief that it came 
here on the flowering Chinese peach. 

Up to 1893 '•^^^ ^^'^ ]^^^ scale (which is 
then properly the Chinese scale) was not 
known to have reached the important pear 
and apple districts of the eastern and middle 
states. At this time, however, it was seen in 
a small orchard in Charlottesville, Va. Up- 
on investigation it was found that the insect 
had appeared in some large eastern nurseries 
six years earlier on plum trees obtained from 
the San Jose district, and that it had thus 
spread to other nurseries, which had sent 
their stock over the eastern and southern 
states. 

The great importance of this discovery 
was generally recognized, and every eff'ort 
was made to find the places of infestation. 



78 



THK FRUIT (Grower's guidk 



with the idta of exterminating the pe.'-t be- 
fore it had become too widely scattered. 
This, however, was proved by the work of a 
year or two to be an idle hope. It was 
demonstrated that the scale conld not be ex- 
terminated, bnt can be controlled by spraying 
and fnmigating. The resnlt of fears awak- 
ened in the United States was transferred to 
loreign conntries, and, beginning with Ger- 
many, one after another adopted measures 
prohibiting the importation of American 
])lants and truits or requiring rigid examina- 
tion betore admission. Canada also ado])tcd 
similar restrictions, and, as a result our for- 
eign trade in plants and fiuits was much cur- 
tailed. In spite of all efforts the San Jose 
scale has slowly extentled its range until it 
now occurs in every state in the Union and in 
])ortions of Canada. It is most abundant in 
the Pacific Coast wStates and in the Atlantic and 
(rulf vStates. There is less in the middle 
west and central states of the northern part 
due, perhaps to the rains and extreme cold. 
The early losses from it were considerable, 
as it is perhaps the only scale pest which, 
unchecked, will in two or three years actually 
kill the plant attacked. 

Al'PKARANCE. 
It is a small lemon-colored louse covered 



TlIK FRUIT GROWKR'S GUIDK 79 




8o THK FRUIT (iROVVHR'S GUIDE 

with a dark brown scale al)out the size of a 
small pin head. The male scale is elongated, 
while the female is ciicular. When highly 
magnified it resembles the pupil of the eye, 
and when dead it is of a grayish white. 

HABITS. 

The female scale when once settled on a 
limb, never moves Init sucks the sap out of 
the tree until the tree dies. If the tree is 
cut down and the flow of sap is stopped, the 
scale dies in a few days. 

The mother scale commences bearing 
young about the first of June. She bears 
from one to five each day for a period of six 
weeks and then dies. The young scale comes 
to maturity in about twent)'-three days, and 
is then ready to reprotluce. Thus the pro- 
gen v ot a single scale in one season will 
reach into tens of millions. The )-oung scale 
is ;ibout the size of a point of a pin, and 
moves over the limb with the rapidity of a 
small ant. 

;\ bird, especially the crow or the robin, 
carries scales from one place to another; they 
light upon an affected tree, and the young 
scale gets onto their feet and is carried for 
miles in this wav. Flies and bees carry it as 
well. Un an apple tree it makes red spots 



THE FRUIT GKOWHR'S GUIDE 8 1 

on the bark and this is more easily detected 
when the bark is wet. When the tree is 
badly affected, it looks as though it were 
covered with wood-ashes. A badly affected 
prune, cherry, or plum tree holds its dead 
leaves all winter, but a plum or prune that 
is only slightly affected can be detected by 
rubbing the finger over the limb. A greasy 
streak will appear wherever there is a scale. 
It attacks all kinds of fruit trees and shrub- 
bery; it is worse on currants than on any 
other berry and is bad on the hedge fence, 
sometimes known as osage orange. It affects 
forest trees but slightly — mountain ash more 
than any other. 

When the young scale is crawling on the 
tree it gets into the leaves and the fruit. 
Those that get into the leaves perish when 
the leaves die. On an apple, it makes little 
red spots in the center of which is a small 
black spot, which is the scale. When one 
rubs off the scale, there is left a tiny white 
spot which shows where it has once been. 

HOW TO TREAT THE SAN JOSE SCALE. 

There are just two ways to treat the Sau 
Jose scale. One is to cut the tree down and 
burn it up. The other is to spray with the 
lime, sulphur, and salt spray, according to 



82 THE FRUIT GROWER'S GUIDE 

Foniiiila I, page 69. ()ther forumlas have 
been frequently advanced, but they have 
never proved a success. If the ingredients 
as given in Formula I, are cooked carefully 
according to directions as to length of cook- 
ing and amount of water, there cannot be the 
least r|uestion that every scale on a tree will 
be killed if every portion of the tree is reached 
by the spray. The spraying should be done 
while the tree is dormant. 

OYSTER SHELL I5ARK SCALE. 

( l^'onrlli Pjieiinial Bulletin of Idaho State Board of Iloiti- 
cultural Inspection, s 

This pest is not nearly so dangerous as the 

San Jose scale, but is much harder to destroy 

on account of its breeding habits. The 

mother deposits from thirty to sixty eggs in 

the fall underneath the shell. These eggs 

are very small but hard like a lien's eggs. 

The mother shrivels up after depositing all 

the eggs, and the shell remains over them 

until the hatching period in June. JSome 

say that it is impossible to spray during the 

dornumt season ]:)utl do not agree with them. 

Although the eggs are well protected with 

the outside shell, yet they can be destroyed 

by adding 6 l)oxes of lye to every 100 gallons 

of the lime, sulphur and salt spray as in 

Formula I. The l}'e eats into the outer 



THK FRUIT GKOWKR'S GUIDK 83 

? 




Figure 7. — 0_vster vSliell Bark vScale. 
sliell and leaves tlieiu exposed. Conse- 
quently very few hatch, 

. PUTNAM SCALE. 
(Idaho Bulletin of 1902.) 

This insect reproduces its species through 
the medium of the egg. It is therefore not 
nearly so dangerous as the San Jose or Curtis 
scale. 

It is a native of this country and conse- 



84 thp: fruit growkr's (;uide 

quently is wide-spread, extending from New 
York to California. The exuvia or center of 
the nipple shows when rnbbed slightly orange 
instead of lemon color. The discoloration 
produced on light barked trees by this scale 
does not penetrate so deeply as that of the 
San Jose scale for while the purplish color of 
the vSan Jose scale extends into the bark, the 
discoloration of the I'utnam scale seldom 
goes deeper than the epitlermis or surface. 
1^'or this reason it is often mistaken for the 
San Jose scale. I have ne\er found it in 
such numbers as to do great harm. It is to 
be found mostly on cottonwoods. vSpray with 
lime, sulphur and salt spray in spring. 

THE CURTLS SC.\LE. 

(Idaho Bulletin of 1902.) 

This species of scale stands next to San 
Jose scale in importance on account of its be- 
ing viv^iparous, that is, it produces living- 
young, and is oviparous or egg-laying. The 
e.xuvia or center of the nipple is surrounded 
by a whitish ring. This scale does not have 
a real margin around it as has the San Jose, 
and it is of a rougher appearance. 

This scale should be sprayed with the 
lime, sulphur and salt spray in the dormant 
season. Formula I. 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 



8:; 



COTTON CUSHION SCALE. 
I Economic Entomology In- Jno. B. Smith, Sc. D. ) 

Cotton Cushion scale is mostly found on 
the maple tree. It usually attracts attention 
in spring when cotton masses become numer- 
ous on twit:js or leaves, increasing in size 
until thev are one-fourth of an inch in lenoth. 




Figure S, — Cotton Cushion Scale. 

The mass seems cottony, but it is actually 
a wax or gum. If a bit is taken up with the 
fingers, it can be drawn out into a string six 
inches long. It forms a beddingr for minute 



86 TIIK FRUIT grower's GUIDH 

egos which have been laid by insects under 
the brown scale which forms the head of the 
mass attached to the twig. F'rom these 
eggs, minute crawling larvae hatch much 
like the eggs in color. In a day or two each 
larvae inserts its 1)eak into a leaf or twig, 
and a little flattened oval scale is formed. 
This scale is not very destructive as birds 
pick them off. They can be killed by spray- 
ing in summer, when tbiC young hatch, with 
lujrmula II. 

RO.SH AND BKRRY SCALE. 

( I'ourtli I'iennial l^.ullelin of Idalio State IJoanl of Ilorti- 
culUiral Iiis])ection. ) 

This scale usually attacks slirubbery such 
as raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, 
currant-bushes, and rose-bushes. 

It is pure white and very conspicuous, a 
little larger than a pin-head when full grown. 
Spray with lime, sulphur and salt spray 
(b\jrmula I) in the dormant season. 

CODLING-MOTH OR APPLK WORM. 

(In writing up llie coiUing-inoth, the flat-headed 
])orer, the peach-tree Ijorer, the peach-twig liorer, the 
red-spider, the pear and clierry slug, the a]i]»]e scab, and 
mildews, the present writer has reproduced the articles 
on those subjects as ]7id>lished in the Fourth IJiennial 
lUdletin of the Idaho State Board of Horticultural In- 
sjicction, and prepared by Mr. Alex. McPherson. Cer- 
tain modifications have been made in accordance with 
later experiments made by the present author. ) 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 87 

The coclling-nioth is the most serious pest 
^vith which the fruit-grower has to conteud 
aud has been known for over 2000 years. 

Its original home was probably southeast- 
■ern Europe, and it has spread until it pro!:)- 
al>ly infests every apple-growing section on 
the globe. The moth was first noticed in 
Idaho twenty-four }ears ago and was thought 
to have been brought here in a shipment of 
eastern apples. At the present time nearly 
every orchard is more or less infested. 

The larva passes the v/inter in a silken 
cocoon hidden in crevices and under the 
rough bark of the tree. It will seek a liome 
almost any place v.diere it can hide away. 
Packing and storage houses often become 
veritable pest-houses unless they can be thor- 
oughlv disinfected. 

In the spring the larva changes to a pupa 
and a few days later the moth emerges. As 
soon as the moths come forth they pair and 
in a few days begin to deposit their eggs; 
sometimes on the apple, but more often on 
the twigs and leaves. The eggs are white, 
circular, and nearly flat. The moth usually 
remains at rest during the day and deposits 
its eggs late in the afternoon or in the earlv 

too -- 

evening. Hatching usually begins in six or 
or seven da)'s and continues for an indefinite 



88 



THK FRUIT GR0WP:R\S GUIDH 



period. The larva or worm when hatched 
is but little larger than a horse-hair, the body 
being white or pink and the head black. It 
feeds two or three daNs on the leaves or on 
the ontside of the apple; then seeks the 
apples, entering at the calyx or eye as the 




Fiji;urc g. — The Codling Moth or Apple Worm. 

a, the moth or adult insect, slighth' enlarged; l\ the egg greatly 
enlarged; c\ the full-grown larva slightly enlarged; d, the pupa, 
slightly enlarged; t\ the pupa in its cocoon on the inner surface of a 
piece of bark, reduced about one-half; f, moth on bark and empty 
pupa skin from which it emerged, a1)out natural size (original). 

Codling Moth. — p-roni Farmers" Bulletin No. 171, by permission, 
U. S. r3epartment of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, by C. B. 
Simpson. 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDP: 89 

skin of the apple seems more tender at that 
point. 

The worm feeds a few days just under the 
skin and then proceeds to tunnel towards the 
center of the fruit. When full-grown, (this 
requires about twenty-one days) it tunnels to 
the outside of the fruit again. If the wormy 
apple falls to the ground, the worm will 
leave the apple and crawl to the base of the 
tree or to the nearest hiding-place. If the 
apple remains on the tree, the worm will 
come down either by its spinerette or will 
crawl to some hiding place on the tree; and 
in seven or eight days it is transformed to a 
miller again. 

The moth is of a dark brownish gray color, 
and when at rest its wings are closely folded. 
The ends of the wings are V shaped with a 
copper-colored border, although sometimes a 
dark cream-colored moth is found. Other- 
wise their form and shape are nearly always 
the same, being about three-fourths of an 
inch long. 

The question ol the number of broods is as 
yet unsettled. Some claim that there are 
only two broods, but I am inclined to think 
from the fact that the first miller appears 
early in the spring and that millers can be 
found as late as October, there must be three 
broods. 



90 



TIIH FRIUT grower's GHinE 



1 liave never detected a codlin^-iiujlli 
miller on the tree. They ahvaws remain 
hidden dnrin^- the day. Thev are very wild 
and flv raj)idl\-. Thev are never attracted 
1)\' lij.;ht, bnt, on the contrary, avoid it. 
Most millers seen are not coillin^-moth 
millers as is errononsly snpposed. The\' niav 
be seen only by lettin<;- the worm hatch in a 
olass jar. 

TRKATMKNT OK CODLIXG-MOTH. 
In fiohtino^ the codlin<;-nioth the first 
thinj.; to do is to destr(,)y all the larva l)efore 
they ha\-e time to become moths. The store 
rooms or other places where apples have 
l)een ke[)t should be j^one over and all the 
lar\'a destroyed; rnbl)ish and trash should 
be remoxed from the orchard and burned; all 
boxes and other ]:)laces where the worm 
mi,i;ht hide should be thoroughh- examined 
and the worms killed; then in F'ebruarN- or 
March shovel awa)- the earth around the tree 
to a depth of three or four inches; this is 
necessary as many of the worms find refni^e 
in the bark and cracks just under the surface 
of the ground. Then take a hea\'y piece of 
muslin or canvas and hem one side over a 
strong cord; tie this tightly around the tree 
close to the ground; scrape off all rough 
l)ark, clean out all cracks where the worm 



THK FRUIT CtROWKR'S GUIDE 9 1 

iiii^lit be in hiding, clean out all holes, pare 
smooth all cuts and broken places. 

BANDING. 

Banding the trees is one of the essential 
adjuncts for the control of the moth, as well 
as being an aid in determining the proper 
time to spray. About four weeks after the 
blossoms fall put on the bands. The band 
should be of somewhat fuzzy te.xture, double 
and as wide as convenient; about four inches 
will do. It should be just long enough to 
pass around the tree and lap over two or 
three inches. Drive a box nail into the tree, 
leaving it stick out about one inch; cut the 
head off the nail with a pair of clippers; fas- 
ten one end of the band on the nail; pass it 
around quite closely and fasten the other end. 
The bauds should be watched and as soon 
as the worm appears they should all be taken 
off and the worm killed. After the worms 
begin to appear the bands should be exam- 
ined and the w-orms killed every eight or ten 
days until the fruit is picked. After this 
allow the bands to remain until all the strag- 
gling worms have gone under the bands, 
which is usually sometime in December. If 
the trees are large, having limbs near the 
ground, it is well to band each limb as well 
as the trunk. 



92 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 



SPRAYING. 

Use Fonimla No. IV. Follow carefully 
directions given as to when to sjirav in the 
chapter on the Spraying of Trees and vShrnb- 
bery, page 7 i. 

THE FL.'^T-HEADEn BORER. 
i:A]iple Tree Borer, i 
This insect nsnally attacks the aj^ple bnt 
is often found attacking other trees. 

It is a pale yellow-colored grul) with a flat 
head \-ery large in size as compared with its 
body. 

The lar\a makes irregular channels or 
chambers under the l)ark eii'dling and killinu 




Fi.unre Ui. — Tlie Flat-liead Apple-borer; a, larva; 
b, pupa; d, adult, 

the )-oung trees. The mother beetle la\s 
the eggs in June or July. The lar\'a lives 
from one to three years before coming to 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 93 

maturity. It seldom attacks healthy strung 
growing trees. 

It may be detected by means of its costings 
which are thrown out as the insect works its 
way into the tree. 

In seeking a remedy for this borer, it will 
be found best to wrap the young trees with 
several thicknesses of strong paper extending 
two inches below the surface of the ground 
to the first limb and tied rather tightK- at 
the top to prevent the mother beetle from 
getting inside the paper. I have tried this 
remedy many times and have succeeded in 
saving the trees so wrapped from the ravages 
of the borer. Other checks which I left as 
checks were killed. In case the tree has not 
been well wrapped and the borer hasentered, it 
should be searched for and when found taken 
out and killed. The tree may recover. 

PEACH TREE BORER. 
The female of this moth deposits her eggs 
in the bark of a tree close to the ground. 
The eggs are very small, oval in lorni slightly 
flattened at the ends, and of a dull yellowish 
color. They are fastened to the bark by a 
gummy secretion. As soon as the worm is 
hatched, it works downward to the bark in 
the root forming a small winding channel 
that soon fills with gum. As the worm in- 



94 



THE FRUIT CiROWKR S GUIDE 



creases in size, it devours the bark and sap 
causing a co|)ious exudation of gum around 
the base of the tree. It sometimes attacks 
the tree farther up, usually in the fork; but 
it may be detected at any time by the pres- 
ence of the exuding gum. Its operations are 
not always confined to the peach, as it also 
works on the plum. The moth which pro- 
duces the borer looks almost like a wasp. It 
should be treated the same as the flat-headed 
borer. 

PEACH TWICr r.ORER. 

I Anarsia LiiR-alella. ) 

This grub is the lar\a of a moth, about 
half an inch in length when fully grown, and 



6 ^c^-^ 




I<'i}^. II — Anarsia hiiealelli. <?, l\\ i.l; of ptaeli, bliuwiiii;- 
in cfDtcli iniimte masses of chc'\ve<l bark above larval 
cbanibcrs; b, latter iiiucli eiilorged; r, a larval cell, with 
coutoined larva; d, dorsal view of young larva more en- 
larged ( original ). 

Peach Twig Borer — P'rom P'arnier's Bulletin No. So, U. 
vS. Department of Agriculture, Division of P'ntomologv. 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 95 

of a light reddish color. It only attacks trees 
bearing pit fruit. It passes the winter in its 
cocoon in the cracks and crevises of the trees, 
transforming to a moth about the time the 
trees begin to bud, which soon begins to lay 
eggs as the young twigs start. From the 
effect of their work the ends of the young 
shoots begin to wither. At the first appear- 
ance of the young shoots having a worm in 
them, they should be cut off and burned. 
The second brood attacks both twigs and fruit. 
The first brood appears in May, and the sec- 
ond in July and August. This insect is 
intermittent, the number of insects apparently 
being greatly reduced some years by natural 
causes. 

TREATMENT. 

Use Formula No. I in the dormant season. 
RED SPIDER. 

This is very small. It is found mostly on 
peach and pear trees. It works around the 
forks of the limb and sucks the sap from the 
tree. It lays its eggs in the fall on the tree, 
and they hatch early in the spring just as the 
buds open. The eggs are so small that they 
can not be seen with the naked eye. With 
the aid of a magnifying glass, millions may 
be observed on a small limb. 

They should be sprayed early in the spring 



96 



THK FRUIT (IROWKR S GUIDE 



will) the lime, sulphur and salt spray, as in 
Formula No. I. 

pp:ar and chkrry slug. 
This is a dark shiny larva that feeds on 
the leaves of the pear and cherry. It some- 




Fij^ure 12 — Ptdi and A])ple Slug 
c7, adult; b, larva; r, same in iioniial state; d, kavcs 
\vith the larva attached natural size; (/, />, l\ much cn- 
lart(ed. 

times attacks other trees as well. It does 
considerable damage by eating away the ptilp 
of the leaves which then wither making the 
tree unable to mature its frtiit. 

There are two broods in a season; the first 
brood hatches about the first of June and the 
second in July. 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 97 

The slug-fly lays the eggs in the leaves 
during the last of May and they hatch in 
about two weeks. If left alone, they will 
render a tree unproductive and perhaps kill 
it entirely. 

They should be sprayed as soon as detected 
on the leaf as they eat rapidly. Spray with 
poison, as in Formula IV. 

APPLE SCAB. 
DESCRIPTION, 

The apple scab attacks the leaves and fruit. 
The first indication of the disease is shown by 
light spots on the leaves, afterwards turning 
to a dirty green or black color; as the season 
advances it is shown on the fruit by dark 
green or blackish spots surrounded by a nar- 
row white margin that loosens, but does not 
destroy, the cuticle of the apple. The 
disease in its worst state causes the dropping of 
the foliage from the tree. The apple ceases 
to grow and becomes distorted and unsightly. 
The fungus receives its sustenance within the 
outer skin of the apple. Thus the damage is 
restricted to badly spotted or distorted fruit, 
rendering it worthless and unsaleable. The 
spores are distributed by the wind and rain, 
the disease making its greatest headway 
duriuij moist warm weather. If the disease 



98 THK FRUIT grower's GUIDE 

is allowed to nui niicliecked the tree becomes 
dwarfed and iiii profitable. 

The apple scab is one of the most pernicious 
fungus diseases we have to contend with and 
in the humid portions of the State it is quite 
a serious pest. Yet it can be successfully 
subdued or eradicated if fruit growers will 
follow the directions given. As a multitude 
of spores of the apple scab pass the winter on 
fallen leaves, they should be plowed or spaded 
under in the dormant season, or, better still, 
raked up and burned. All twigs, trimmings, 
etc., from the orchard should be gathered up 
and burned, and the orchard sprayed with 
Formula No. I, just as the buds are beginning 
to open. It is not only the best fungicide in 
the dormant season, that I know of, but it is 
also the best insecticide, and should be used 
in preference to all of the remedies, especially 
if there is a suspicion that the San Jose scale 
is, or may be, in the orchard. This may be 
supplemented by using the Bordeaux Mix- 
ture, (Formula IIIj as soon as the foliage is 
well out, and its use continued at intervals 
of about two weeks, going over the orchard 
from three to five times. Formula IV should 
be added to this for the codling-moth. These 
formulas readily combine, thus spraying for 
both the codling-moth and fungus diseases 
at the same time. 



THE FRUIT GKOWKR'S GUIDK 99 

MILDEWS. 

There are several mildews found on culti- 
vated plants in Idaho. Among these may 
be mentioned Powdery Mildew of the grape, 
Gooseberry Mildew, Peach Mildew, Apple 
Mildew and Rose Mildew. Of these the 
most serious, and the only ones effecting 
much damage at present, are the first two. 
Like many other fungus diseases, these have 
two forms, a summer or conidial form, and a 
winter or perithecial form. The first occurs 
early in the growing season, the second later. 
The first appears in all of these mildews as a 
delicate, white, cobwebby coating on leaves, 
young stems, or even on the fruit. Sprays, 
to be efficacious, must be applied at this time. 
The second form coats the parts of the host 
with a dark covering, and when this has 
formed, spraying avails nothing, as the spray 
cannot reach the well protected spores. 
These spore bodies begin to form about July, 
so all spraying should be given prior to this 
month. 

POWDERY MILDEW OF THE GRAPE. 

This is found most abundant on the Vin- 
ifera or European type of grapes, being found 
hardly at all, in Idaho, on the American 
grapes. 



lOO THE FRUIT GKUWHR'S GUIDK 

TREATMENT. 
Ill the spring use Formula No. I just as 
the leaves are coniiug out. In suininer use 
Formula No. III. Better results will be at- 
tained by this method than by using the 
Bordeaux alone throughout the season. 

BITTER ROT OF APPLES. 

(The discussion below is based on "The Bitter Rot of 
Apples," published by the U. S. Department of Agricul- 
ture, Bureau of Plant Industry — Bulletin No. 44.) 

Bitter rot is one of the most destructive of 
fungus diseases. It is found in twenty -seven 
of the eastern states, and is most prevalent 
in the central states. The loss occasioned 
by this disease alone amounts to $io,ooo,oco 
annually. 

Up to the present time, bitter rot has not 
made its appearance in the Pacific states, 
and, if proper care be taken, it may never do 
so. It is included in this l)ook partly to cau- 
tion intending purchasers against buying 
trees already infested with the fungus, and 
partly to inform orchardists concerning its 
appearance and progress so that it may be 
recognized and coped with in case it does 
come among us. 

The bitter rot puts in appearance at differ- 
ent dates during July and August, climatic 
conditions causing the varying of its seasons. 



THF, FRUIT grower's GUIDE lOL 

Warm sultry weather following a rain is a 
condition highly favorable to the develop- 
ment of the disease. It may be found in or- 
chards in cool dry seasons, but it is then not 
so destructive. A few hot wet days in x\ug- 
iist mav bring on a sudden attack which will 
prove very fatal in its results. Nights of 
heavy dew followed by hot days are likely to 
develop the disease. The whole crop has 
sometimes been destroyed, and that, too, in 
a few days. 

The first sign of the bitter rot is in the 
form of a very faint light brown color under 
the skin of the apple. At first the spots are 
very small, and, as thev grow larger, they 
become circular '.n outline. Their growth is 
very rapid, the color becoming a darker 
brown. When the spots are still no larger 
than one-eighth of an inch across, they seem 
to sink. The outline is sharplv defined, and 
almost a perfect circle. When the diameter 
has reached one-half of an inch, little black 
spots appear at almost regular intervals be- 
neath the skin of the sunken area. These 
increase in size, and project as tiny raised 
points. Afterward they break through the 
skin, and great numbers of spores thus es- 
cape. These spores, when not washed away, 
form a sticky mass which clings to the apple 



102 THK FRUIT CROWKR S GUIDK 

when dry. On dry quiet nights the spores 
are discharged in long tendril-like threads 
which are the fruiting bodies of this disease. 
These black bodies are often formed in the 
shape of a ring. As the rot progresses, other 
rings of pistules appear outside of the first 
one, and at regular intervals, six, eight, or 
even more forming in rapid succession. 
Each ring has hundreds of pistules all pro- 
ducing spores at the same time so that num- 
erous rings are appearing continually. The 
formation of these rings depends on tlie 
rapidity with which tlie fungus grows. The 
most perfect rings are formed when the 
growth is most rapid. 

THE CANKER STAGE. 

The cankers found in Illinois appear like 
l)lackened depressions on limbs of various 
sizes, sometimes on those of last year's fruit- 
spurs, and sometimes on limbs three or four 
inches thick. None of the cankers have yet 
been found on the main stock. The canker 
is a sooty black sunken spot, rounded or ol)- 
long in shape, and from one to several inches 
in length. 

The fungus is likely to start at some small 
wound. It starts to grow in the bark and 
kills it and the cambium laver. The result 



THR FRUIT grower's GUIDK IO3 

is that no new wood is formed at the point 
where the cambium is killed. As the fungus 
grows out from the place of infection, of 
course more and more bark and cambium are 
killed, so that by the end of the growing sea- 
son, a very large spot on the limb is dead. 
It probably makes its first appearance in the 
bark in June, 

Spray in the spring with Formula I; and 
an the summer with Formula III. 

PHYLLOXERA VASTATRIX. 

(Adapted from •'p;conomic Entoiuologv" by Jno. B, 
Smith, Sc. D.) 

This insect winters on the roots of grapes, 
mostly as a young wingless form. It starts 
its growth in spring rapidly increasing in 
size and soon commences to lay eggs. The 
young, like their mother, remain wingless. 
They are also sexless and also lay eggs. So 
we may have a series of generations of sim- 
ilar creatures, no true sexes becoming de- 
veloped, no wings appearing, and reproduc- 
tion being entirely through unfertilized eggs. 
Some times in mid-summer some individuals 
acquire wings, and thus we get migrating 
forms, which issue from the ground while 
yet in the pupa stage; and as soon as they 
become winged, they fly and spread to other 
vineyards in the vicinity. Eggs are then 



i04 



THK FRUIT GROWKR'S CiUIDK 



laid, usually three to eight being tlic range, 
while five are perhaps the usual number. 
They are of two sizes, of which the larger 




Phyllo-vrra i(J:itatri.v. — a, unaffected rootlet of ^rapc; b, root- 
lets with liewlj'-foruud galls; c, same, with old and dried-up tissue; 
clcL grou])s of the lice on roots and rootlets; <', /", female pupa, from 
above and below; c, -'^ winged females; /, an antenna; j, ovipar- 
ous wingless female and her eggs; /•, root showing location of the 



THK FRUIT r.ROWKR'S GUIDK 105 

produces females, and the other, males. 
They come from the eggs tiilly developed 
and ready to reproduce. These curious crea- 
tures have become modified for the purpose 
of reproducing their kind. They cannot 
feed, for the mouth is aborted; nor fly, for 
they have no wings. After copulation a 
single egg, almost as large as the insect itself 
is developed in the female, and from il 
hatches a form which is like the type which 
started the cycle early in the season. Curi- 
ously enough, it occasionally happens that 
some of the wingless forms which remain 
under ground also lay eggs of two diflfercnt 
sizes producing males and females, and thus 
it appears that winged forms are not really 
necessary to the continuation of the species. 

Often wingless individuals abandon the 
roots and crawl up the stems to the lea\-es, 
where they form the galls, which are the 
most prominent external indications that a 
vine is infested. If one of these galls be cut 
open, the inside will be found lined with 
numerous minute yellow insects with dusky 
wings, which lie folded flat over the back; 
and in this particular the Phylloxera differs 
from the typical ophids, which have the 
wings vertical when at rest. 

This insect has made its apjiearance in the 



Io6 THE FRUIT (iROWKR'S GUIDK 

north of Idaho, ]>ut not as yet in the 
sonth. Kxperinients for its eradication 
have not yet proved successful. Horticul- 
tnralists are now at work on the problem. 

CURL LEAK OF THE PEACH. 
(Consult "The California limits" by Edward J. Wickson. ) 

The curl leaf is due to parasitic fun^i. It 
occurs in various degrees. ■\Iild cases do not 
seem to injure tree or fruit, severe cases 
destrov the fruit and sometimes the tree 
itself. 

The disease is almost always at its height 
when the young fruit is about the size of 
small peas. If the curl is "bad," the fruit 
will fall to the ground, there not being 
healthy leaves enough to afford the required 
support. If, however, the curl is moderate 
and partial, only a part and sometimes none 
of the fruit will be lost. The disease, as is 
well known, is of brief duration, lasting, per- 
haps, Irom 12 to 20 days, after which the 
tree resumes a healthy appearance in e\ery 
respect. If the fruit has been able to survive 
the ordeal, it appears to grow and become 
perfect as if no check had been felt. 

Treatment: vSpiay in the spring with 
Formula I and in the summer with l'\Mniula 
III. 



THK FRUIT grower's GUIDE I07 

ROSE BEETLE. 

The rose beetle is a red bug about the size 
of a small lady-bug, with long slender blaek 
legs and a proboscis about a quarter of an 
inch long. It appears on the rose bush be- 
fore opening and bores a great many holes 
through the bud, causing it not to open. 
This beetle is very destructive to a rose bush. 
About the only remedy is to spray with 

poison. 

HONEY SUCKLE BEETLE. 

The honey suckle beetle is a lead colored 
bug, with long proboscis or bill. It eats in 
at the end of the young shoot and checks the 
growth. It also eats the foliage. It can be 
killed by a poisonous spray. 

RED RUST ON BLACKBERRY VINES. 

This is a fungus disease. About mid- 
summer it will be noticed that the cane and 
the leaf of the blackberry turn red all over. 
Even the roots will be covered with red spots, 
some being one-fourth inch in diameter, and 
almost a solid mass over the leaf will be seen. 
The only remedy is to dig the vine up and burn 

it. 

GRAPE SLUG. 
{ Larvae of Blennocainpa.) 

This is a black dotted worm about an inch 



I OS 



THE FRUIT (iROWHR'S CUIDP: 



long, and it resembles a small caterpillar. 
It feeds on the leaf of the grape, causing the 
leaf to roll up. It is easily killed In' using 
one ounce of white hellebore to one gallon of 
water. 

FROZKX SAP BLIGHT. 

iMozen sap blight is caused b}- the exces- 
si\-e dryness of the ground early in the season. 

Tlie saj) rises and the tree uiakes a short 
growth. N\)t having nourishment, the tree 
concludes its growth early in the fall. When 
the fall rains comnieuce, if the weather con- 
tiniies warm, the tree starts to make another 
growth. Uefore the saj> has time to come 
l)ack down the tree to make the cell-growth 
that enlarges the stem of the tree, freezing- 
weather comes, and the sap is trozeii in these 
cells. It becomes dark and discdored, and 
sticky; and remains there failing to go down 
to the roots. 'Idle next \-ear the new sap 
rises, the tree leaves out, and the fruit and 
growth starts just as if nc^thing were wrong, 
but by July when the sap gets back down the 
trunk where it was frozen in those cells it is 
not able to pass this frozen saji, and conse- 
quently the new sap oozes out, and runs down 
on the outside of the bark. When examined, 
the sa]) smells soured, or like anything that 
]):\> l)een frozen and thawed. The tree will 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE I09 

tlien begin to die. For this disease there is 011 
remedy. The only preventative is the proper 
watering of the tree. 

THE BOX ELDER BUG. 

(Dj-sdereus Sutrellis. ) 

This is the red bug or cotton stainer. It 
has a long beak and a head of moderate size. 
The body is rather hard, and the color is a 
brilliant black and red. The insects feed on 
the leaf of the box elder and are quite trouble- 
some about the house. They are found in 
all crevices on the outside of the houses if 
box elders are near. They are quite a pest 
in the southern states, as they work on cotton 
seed, and stain the cotton red ; they also attack 
oranges in Florida. They are trapped by 
placing small heaps of cotton seed in a grove 
to attract them where they can easily be de- 
stroyed with pure kerosene. 

The young are found on the box elders in 

J"iy. 

FALL WEB WORM. 
( Hypliantria Cuiiea. ) 

This species appears at its worst in the fall 
(hence its name,) while the apple tree tent 
caterpillar appears only in the spring. There 
are several species of tent caterpillar in Idaho. 
x\mong the number are the forest tree cater- 
pillar, the yellow-necked caterpillar, etc. 



IIO THE FRUIT GROWKR'S GUIDE 

All of them are on the increase and shonld 
be destroyed as soon as discovered. This can 
be done either in the egg state, by destroying 
the eggs wherever fonnd (the eggs are easily 
seen appearing in masses, stnck fast to the 
branches of the trees, etc., or in their tents, 
when they appear later in the season,) or by 
cntting off the branch and bnrning it, or by 
taking a piece of old cloth, satnrating it with 
coal oil, fastening it to the end of a pole, 
setting it on fire and bnrning by passing the 
flame qnickly aronnd the limb nnder them. 
Use Remedy No. Ill, if there are too many of 
them for the above treatment. 

TIIK FOREST TREE TENT CATERPILLAR 
( Malacosoiiia Fragilis.) 

(The following press bulletin by Prof. J. M. AUlricli, 
of the University of Idaho, Agricultural Experiment 
vStation, is inserted by ])erinission.) 

The insect was very abundant and destrnct- 
i\e in the vicinity of Bellevue last season, 
and will be much more so this year. Hence 
it seems necessary to call the attention of 
residents of that neighborhood and the sur- 
rounding country to the necessity of early 
and thorough treatment for the purpose of 
reducing the injury as much as possible. 

The mature insect is a moth of medium 
size and vellowish color. The damage is 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE III 

done by the larva or caterpillar, which when 
fnll grown is a long blackish kind, with a 
few small lighter marks and a narrow bluish 
stripe down the middle of the back. It is 
somewhat hairy, and the skin has a covering 
of black, velvety down. 

The life history is as follows: The eggs 
hatch early in the spring, as soon as the 
leaves of trees begin to unfold. The eggs 
being in masses of a hundred or more, the 
insects appear in colonies, and begin to spin 
a web on branches about or near the place 
of hatching. They soon devour all the foli- 
age near this web, and before half grown 
they scatter and do not afterward live in the 
web or in a colony. They reach their full 
size about July lo, and make a yellow co- 
coon on the tree, enclosed in a few loose 
threads of silk. They usually draw together 
a few leaves, or fragments of leaves, to form 
a partial cover for the cocoon. It may be 
formed at some distance (fifty feet or more) 
from where the caterpillar has been eating. 
The next stage is passed in the cocoon; it is 
brief, and the moths come out about July 20. 
They proceed at once to lay eggs for the 
next season. These are placed on twigs or 
branches, in the form of a brownish mass, 
covered with a frothy material so that the 



112 THE KKUIT tiROWHR'S GUIDE 

shaptj of the eggs cannot be distinctly seen. 
There are abont a hnndred eggs in a mass, 
and they are laid before the first of Angnst. 
Nothing fnrther happens until the next 
spring, as there is only one brood of the in- 
sect in a year. 

Their favorite food is the balm of Gilead 
or Cottonwood, many trees of which were al- 
most entirely stripped (jf leaves last year along 
Wood Ri\cr, in a region extending from two 
miles aboN'e Bellevue to three miles below. 
There will naturally be considerable spread 
this vear, and trouble ma\' Ije expected tor 
several miles beyond this area. 

Last \ear several other kinds of trees and 
shrubs were also eaten, and there is danger 
that the species will be so numerous this 
year as to cause serious loss to shade and or- 
namental trees, currants, gooseberries, and 
other small fruits, and to fruit trees where 
they occur. 

RKM INDIES. 

The first thing to do is to examine one's 
own premises immediately on receipt of this 
warning, to see if an)- eggs have been de- 
posited. The egg-masses are easily recog- 
nized, as no other insect in the vicinity makes 
the same kind. If found, they should be 
destroved. Crushin'-- the nuiss or cutting 



THK FRUIT (".KOVVKR'S GUIDK II3 

off the twig- and burning it is perfectly effect- 
ive and very easy. On large Cottonwood 
trees little can be done; but no doubt the 
eggs are numerous on small trees and shrubs 
in many places at some distance from such 
trees. Here the attack can be nipped in the 
bud. This preliminary work is very im- 
portant. 

After hatching, the caterpillars may be 
destroyed by spraying their food plant with 
Paris Green, one pound to 150 gallons of 
water. This will aj^ply especially to garden 
fruits, etc. 

In the immediate vicinity of Bellevue, 
early and constant attention will be neces- 
sar\'. At more remote places, at least the 
first inspection should be made; unless the 
eggs are found on the premises or near by, 
there is but little danger of trouble this year. 
The amount of spread which occurred last 
year after the moths hatched and before they 
laid their eggs is not definitely known; it 
may have been several miles. 

The caterpillar suffered considerably last 
year from the attacks of several parasitic in- 
sects. There is reason to expect that these 
parasites will increase, in a year or two, 
enough to reduce the number of caterpillars; 
but the immense number of eggs that were 



. ', 



114 I'lm FRUIT GRUWKR S GUIDK 

laid last year makes it certain that the troul)le 
will be worse this year than last. 

The worms do not travel as a rnle more 
than a few hundred feet from the place of 
hatching; but the moths may fly a long dis- 
tance before laying eggs. Hence the spread 
occurs after the insect has finished feeding 
for the year. 

The experiment Station will corres[)t)nd 
with any who desire further advice. 

FIRK in^IGFIT. 
( vSouietimes called "Pear Blight." ) 
(A press bulletin issued, dated March, 1904, by Profes- 
sor L. I'. Heuderson, of the Idaho Experiment Station, 
which covers the g^round very fully, is herewitli a])- 
pended. ) 

The name "Kire Blight" is the })roper 
one to use; it should not be called "Pear 
Blight" for two reasons. In the first place 
it is liable to be confused with the Pear-leaf 
Blight, a disease which attacks the leaf of 
the pear, and incidentally injures the fruit. 
In the next place this disease is not limited 
to the pear; it is fast Ijecoming too common 
on the apple as well, in oui state. Na>', in 
many states it attacks all of the pomaceous 
fruits, such as pear, apple, quince, crab and 
hawthorn. Three years ago, this disease 
was unknown to the writer in the southern 
part of the state; to-day, there is hardly an 



THK FRUIT GROWKk'S GUIUK II5 

orchard in certain districts which does not 
show some blight, and in many it is very ser- 
ious. In Northern Idaho it has been in our 
pear orchards for over ten years, but luckily 
it has hardly ever attacked the apple. From 
the devastation this disease is causing in the 
Southern Idaho apple orchards, we cannot 
expect that the northern portions of the state 
will long be exempt. 

HISTORICAL. 

Though this trouble has been known as 
working havoc in the orchards for a centur\' 
or more, it is only in comparatively recent 
times that its true nature has been well 
understood. For a long period of years the 
discussions of this trouble were of such a 
theoretic nature, that many horticultural 
societies forbade its being brought up in their 
meetings, unless someone had something of 
absolute knowledge to offer about it. Vari- 
ous causes were ascribed for its presence, 
such as ''sour sap," "atmospheric condi- 
tions," "soil conditions," and "effects of var- 
ious fungi." In 1878, however, Professor 
Burrill of Illinois discovered the true cause 
and announced his discover}' to the world. 
This was found to be a bacterial disease, due 
to the presence of myriads of little germs in 



Il6 THK i'KUIT CiROWKR'S GUIDE 

the inner bark and cam bin ni. Tlie germ 
was called by Prof. Bnrrill Micrococcus amy- 
lovorus from the eagerness with which it 
seizes upon and devours the starch in these 
tissues. From the subsequent studies ot 
Arthur at the Geneva vStation in New York, 
and of Waite in the U. vS. Department of Ag- 
riculture, we know how this germ or bac- 
terium lives, reproduces itself and is carried 
from tree to tree. 

APPKARANCK OF P> LIGHT. 

Luckily the disease is a very conspicuous 
one, which renders its presence in an orchard 
the more inexcusable when well known. 
It effects twigs, leaves, }-oung fruit, and even 
the branches or trunks. From the experi- 
ments of Waite, it has been found that it 
cannot attack the plant through the unin- 
jured bark or leaf. It can, however, gain 
entrance through any injured place on trunk, 
limb or even leaf. Its most common points 
of entrance are natural ones. These are the 
young growing tips of the branch, the stig- 
ma of the flower, or the glands which secrete 
nectar. Therefore the "flower-blight," the 
"twig-blight," and the "branch or trunk 
blight" are all forms of this disease. 

In the first, the )-oung twig, especially if 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE II 



it be growing rapidly, turns black in both 
leaf and stem, and wherever the leaves are 
blighted, they remain black and dead through 
the ensuing winter. This black, piratical 
flag is the surest evidence of its presence. 

In the "flower-blight" a whole bunch of 
flowers, or frequently every bunch upon the 
tree will be affected, and dying back to the 
beginning of the spur, hold the blackened 
flowers and young fruit also through the en- 
tire year. This is the most common form on 
the apple. 

Frequently an entire limb or even the 
trunk will be aff^ected for only a short dis- 
tance, while the top will still be entirely free 
from the disease, and this can only be under- 
stood when we speak of how the disease is 
spread. 

More frequently upon the pear several 
limbs and even the whole trunk will be af- 
fected, and when this is the case the tree 
should be cut out root and branch. 

MEANS OF DISSEMIN.\TlON. 

If the young shoots of a tree affected 
with blight be examined, small drops of 
sticky, thick fluid will be found exuding from 
the edge of the diseased area. If one of 
these drops be examined with a high power 



Il8 TIIK FRUIT CROWI'.R'S lU'lDi'. 

of a microscope, myriads of little oblon<^ 
])0(lies will be seen, some separate, some in 
short chains. These are bacteria. Arthnr 
proved that these bodies, innoculated into a 
sound tree by a needle, would produce the 
disease; Waite proved to ns beyond dispute 
that insects, especially bees, are the main in- 
struments in their dissemination. Thex- arc 
attracted by the \-iscid sap, suck up part or 
all the drop, and then carrv thousands of 
these ^erms with them to innocnlate liowcrs, 
shoots, or wounded ])laces in the bark. Un- 
doubtedly hea\y currents of wind assist in 
sjjreading the disease and j^robabh' account 
for the commonness of "twi^g-blioht." The 
(piestion comes ri*.^ht here: Shall I keej) 
l)ees if I have an orchard? Certainl\-, and 
for two reasons. b'irst, the hones-, and the 
revenue derived from it, are (jften no small 
ol:)ject to the farmer. .Second, the bees arc 
absolutely needed to assist in j'iroper cross- 
fertilization or ])ollination of the liowers. 
This leads us to the subject oi remedies, for 
preventatives there are none. 

RKMKi'n-:s. 

As soon as the bacteria are carried to youuo- 
llower or wound, the)- affect entrance, and 
living- ni)ou the saji and starch, multi})ly 



TIIK FRUIT grower's GUIDE II9 

rapid])'. If they gain entrance along a limb 
or trnnk, they live in the inner bark and 
cambinni-layer, — that layer which adds year- 
ly to the growth of l)otli bark and wood. 

It can readily be seen from this that they 
are well covered, and conseqnently spraying- 
does no good. The only remedy thus far 
found has been and is the careful and con- 
tinuous use of the saw and pruning knife. 
All diseased shoots and limbs should be cut 
off at from 6 inches to one foot below the 
place of evident infection or injury, as the 
l:)acteria have always gone down deeper into 
the limb than seems to be the case from the 
outside. Many pruners have the habit of 
splitting down the Ijark to see how far the 
disease has proceeded, ])ut this practice is to 
be condemned, as they never can see how 
far the disease has proceeded, and the incis- 
ion of the knife may carry the l:)acteria from 
diseased to healthy tissues. If the blight is 
bad in either the pear or apple-orchard, the 
knife or saw should be sterilized each time it 
is used, by either passing it through a flame 
or dipping it into weak carl)olic acid-water, 
or into kerosene. The pruned limbs or frag- 
ments should be collected and burned and 
both pruning and burning should be done 
mainly in the dormant season, before the sap 



I20 TMK FUUIT C.ROWKR S CUIDI': 

has started, the bacteria have awakened, and 
the l^ees are \'isiting the orchard. This is 
the l)est time for pruning and l)urnini;-, but 
not the only one; it shouhl be done whenever 
the disease makes its appearance. All large 
wounds should he painted over with paint as 
soon as the tree is trimmed, to prevent the 
re-innoculation through the exposed tissues. 
Where the blight is l)ad, even young shoots 
or water sprouts should have their cut bases 
jxainted, for it has l)een shown time and again 
that the limbs and even trunks ha\'e l)een iu- 
uoculated through these cut stul)s. 

The pear is much more easily pruned lor 
this disease than is the apple. On the 
former it commonly manifests itself in dead 
or dving shoots, limbs, or trunks, which can 
readily be cut awav below the progress of 
the disease. On the apple, however, it is 
commonly the shoots all over the tree, and 
especially the tVuit spurs and their clusters 
of flowers, which are most affected. Pruning 
here becomes a much more difficult and even 
serious undertaking. Where onh- a few 
shoots and fruit spurs are affected these can 
be cut away close to the tree, and the wound 
immediately covered with paint. Where, 
however, ahuost all of the fruit spurs on the 
whole tree have died, the best wa)- is to cut 



THE FKUIT GROWKR'S GUIDE 121 

off entire and large limbs, cover the woniuls 
with paint, and stimulate the produchon of 
new shoots and subsequent fruit spurs. 
Many such trees are to be found in and 
around Boise, New Plymouth and many other 
places. In the former place my attention 
was called by Inspector McPherson to a very 
interesting though sad evidence of the effi- 
cacy of bees in spreading the disease. All 
the splendid large apple trees near the hi\'es 
were without exception seriously injured by 
blight, while as we proceeded on radii from 
the hives the blight grew less and less, and 
almost disappeared on the edge of the orchard 
farthest from the hive. 

(The orchard here referred to is now practically free 
from blight, which goes to show that the blight can be 
controlled by following the approved methods. ) 

OTHER HEI.P.S. 

It has been often noticed that rapidly 
growing trees are more subject to blight 
thau slower growers, and that those in low 
ground or "swales" are more subject thau 
those on drier ground. Orchards should 
therefore be planted on well drained land, 
and should not be stimulated by too much 
water or too much fertilizer. 

Though all of the varieties of the poma- 
ceous fruits are subject to this disease, as 



122 THE FRUIT GROWRR'S (UTIDK 

said before, some varieties have been found 
more subject to the attacks of blight than 
oth.ers. Of the apples, tlie crabs of all kinds 
have been found very prone to blight. 
Anionst the pear, in most places, the Anjou, 
Angouleme and vScckel are most resistant, 
l)aillett and Flemish Beauty are less so, 
while tlie Idaho, Clapp and Winter Nellis arc 
ver)- 'subject to blight. 

L. V. Henderson, Botanist. 

THE APHIS, OR PLANT LOUSE. 

Fertile following description of the Aphis I , -1111 indeht- 
ed to Smith's Rcoiioiiiic Fhitoiiiology. 

The plant lice are well known to agricul- 
turists by the injur)- they cause, and thej- are 
interesting to the naturalist from their life 
historv. Here we have the most striking 
apparent exception to the general rules that 
insects are developed from eggs, and yet }>cr- 
haps the exception is more apparant than 
real. At all events parthenogenesis, or re- 
])roduction without the intervention of a male 
occurs normally in a large percentage of the 
species. Of course they are many differences 
in life haljits, but a general account, covering- 
most of the cases, is all that can be attempted 
here. As a rule, plant lice winter in the egg 
stage; but this is subject to many exceptions, 
especially in the warmer parts of the country. 



THK FRUIT C,ROWI<:r'S fUTIDE 1 23 

Kavly in tlie spring, as soon as there is a trace 
of reviving vegetation, these eggs hatch. 
The insect that now appears is wingless, and 
iisnally remains so, but grows rapidly by 
sucking the plant juices, and soon begins to 
produce living young. It is called a "stem- 
mother," because it is the source from which 
numerous generations issue during the season. 
All the )'oung born by this stem mother are, 
like herself, without sex; that is the\' are 
neither males, nor sexually developed females. 
The rate at which they are born, varies, but 
as many as eight living young have been ob- 
served within a period of twenty-four hours 
from one specimen, and it is not unusual to 
find, early in the season, a single large 
louse surrounded by a group of anywhere 
from a dozen to twenty or even more small 
specimens. The rate of growth also varies, 
depending upon the weather; indeed weather 
conditions, early in the season, frequently 
determine the question of whether or not cer- 
tain species are to become injurious later on. 
A warm moist temperature favors their devel- 
opment, and reproduction goes on at a ra])id 
rate. Correspondingly, cold, wet weather 
checks development, and may even destroy a 
large number, particularly the young. Plant 
lice, in their young stages, are exceedingh- 



124 Tm*- i-RtTi'i" grower's ouidk 

susceptible to sudden chauges of temperature, 
and at almost any time in the season a sudden 
drop of from fifteen to twenty degrees, accom- 
])anied by a rain, will prove fatal to a great 
proportion of them. ])Ut assuming that all is 
favorable, the )-()ung that were first brought 
forth, are in turn ready to rei>roduce in five 
or six days, and they also form little colonies; 
this method of reproduction continuing as 
long as food is plentiful and weather mild. 
Ivxperimentally, reproduction of this kind 
has been continued for several years in suc- 
cession, without any tendancy to develop 
sexed indixiduals or to produce eggs. At 
almost any time after the first generation, 
specimens mav become winged, and these fly 
to other localities, forming new colonies 
wherever suital)le food is found. In this way 
thev spread, and, though they may have 
started from a single favorable colony, they 
yet in their course of a few weeks, cover many 
hundreds of acres. Exactly what determines 
the formation of wings in some specimens 
and not in others is not known. We do 
know, however, that the progeny of a single 
indi\-idual is variable, and that some become 
winged, others do not; but whether winged 
or wingless, the specimens are ecpially with- 
out sex, all are viviparous, or bring forth 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE I 25 

living young. As Ihe summer advances re- 
production becomes less rapid. Plants tend 
to dry, the supply of sap is not so plentiful, 
and these features become more marked 
through the autumn months until, with the 
approach of cold weather, plant growth en- 
tirely ceases. It becomes necessary now to 
provide for the continuation of the species 
during winter, and sexed forms are developed. 
The males are usually winged and appear a 
short time before the females, which differ by 
the lack of wings and the usually small size 
compared with the normal sexless form. 
Pairing takes place as soon as the female is 
sexually matured, and in a very few days 
afterwards eggs are laid. In many instances 
the egg supply is exceedingly small, indeed, 
they may be one only matured by a female. 
Even this many remain within the body of 
the parent, wdio simply dries up the skin 
shrivelling around and forming a protection 
to the ovum. More usually several eggs are 
produced, and these of largesize in proportion 
to the insect that lays them. They are green 
or greenish-brown in color when laid, some- 
timesyellowish and frequently darken to black. 
They are placed in sheltered situations on 
plants, and, in the case of orchard trees, are 
usually found at the tip of the twigs, around 



126 



THli FRUIT (rKOWHR'S GUIDK 



the biid.s, or on the leaf-scales where vej^etalion 
will first start, in the spring following. Thev 
are very firm in textnre and very resistant to 
insecticides; in fact, it is impossible to destroy 
them except Ijy the most canstic mixtnres. 
It has been already indicated that there are 
many exceptions to this general life history, 
and one exception we find where species feed 
(hiring the summer upon a i)lant which dies 
down to the ground, leaving nothing through 
the winter. In such cases there is an alter- 
nate tood-plant, upon which the winter and 
earh' S[)ring is jiassed. From this the in- 
sects migrate in early summer and to it the)' 
return when cold weather sets in. Such a 
case we have is the hop louse, which spends 
the summer upon the hop increasing 
greatly in number in favorable seasons 
and often causing much injur\-. When the 
\incs mature ami die, nudes develop, and all 
the lice ti\' to i)lum trees. Here the female 
is Ijorn, the se.xes nurle, and eggs are laid. 
In the spring two or more generations ma- 
ture upon the plum, and, when the \ines are 
again well started, winged forms develop and 
migrate to their summer food plant. This 
sort of migration is not unusual, although it 
has not been traced out in nuru}- cases. 

Another example we find in the "melon 



THE FRUIT GROVVKR'S GUIDK 1 27 

louse," w'liich has a considerable range of 
food plants, includinf:^ cotton, orange, straw- 
berry, and nearly all the common weeds of 
our fields. If circumstances favor their in- 
crease in spring, winged forms are produced 
which migrate and settle upon melon fields, 
providing for colonies during the summer. 

The scientific problems connected with 
this method of reproduction and spread are 
of great interest, but cannot be entered upon 
here; the mere statement of the case being- 
sufficient for practical purposes. Plant lice are 
so commonly known that a detailed descrip- 
tion of their appearance is unnecessary ; but 
it is well to call attention to the presence of 
a pair of little tubes or cornicles near the end 
of the abdomen, projecting from the upper 
surface. These are called honey tuljes, and 
from them is excreted a sweetish liquid 
known as honey-dew. Sometimes, when 
food is abundant and the insects are active, 
the amount of sap they pump out of the 
plants is so great that, in order to ease them- 
selves, they void it in little streams through 
the anus, as well as in drops through the 
honey-tubes. Thus the leaves of infested 
plants become sticky or glazed with a sweet- 
ish liquid, on which a black fungus rapidly 
develops, the leaf being frequently killed b)' 



12b THK FRUIT (rKUWKR'S C'.UIDK 

siiiiph' choking- lo death. Sometimes the 
vegetation Ijeneath a tree becomes thoronghly 
coated in tlie same way, or, when shade trees 
in cities are infested, the pavement becomes 
wet and slippery with the viscid liquid. 
This honey-dew is often attractive for their 
distribution. As thev never come to the sur- 
face, so far as we know they are never 
winged, and are usually dull white in color, 
or, with a slight tinge of green. The l)ody 
is covered with a whitish powder and lacks 
honey-tubes. 

WOOLLV APHIS. 
In my district I have gathered thirty-two 
different kinds of Aphis, which differ in size, 
form and color. Some travel rapidly o\-er 
the foliage while others are very slow in their 
movements, each a])parently having its par- 
ticular tree or plant to feed on. Of all the 
Aphis, 1 consider the woolly aphis the most 
destructive, as it works on the stems and 
roots ()f all seeded fruits causing the root to 
knot or gall, as shown in Fig. ir. This 
checks the growth of tlie tree. Be careful in 
l)uying young trees not to get infected trees. 
When working on the stem they cause the 
place where the\' are working to become en- 
larged. This is generally where a limb has 
been cut, or wdiere there is a bruised place on 



THE FRUIT GKOWKR'S GUIDE 12<) 




Figure 14. 

the tree. These cover themselves with a 
secretion resembling fine cotton fiber which 
conceal them more or less completely. »Some 
become winged as shown in Fig. c/page 130. 



13U THli FRUIT grower's GUiDlt 








^ m 




I ?A \ 



Figure 15. 

PURPLE APHIS. 

The Purple Aphis comes next in my opin- 
ion to the woolly aphis, as where the)- are bad 
the apple tree's fruit will not mature, but 
wither up and hang all winter on the tree. 
The other thirty varieties feed on trees and 
plants, and the following is the list of trees 
and plants upon which they feed: 
The Prune Aphis, Rosebush Aphis, 

Wild Plum Aphis, Currant xA-phis, 

Peach Aphis, Honeysuckle Aphis, 

Cherry Aphis, Holly Hock Aphis, 

American Elm Aphis, Golden Rod Aphis, 



THK M<i!rr ckowkr's guidk 131 

Box Elder Aphis, Old r^Ian Aphis, 

Philbert Aphis, Sour-Dock Aphis, 

Cotton Wood Aphis, Hop Vine Aphis, 
Black Locust Aphis, Cabbage Aphis, 
vSoft Maple Aphis, Willow Aphis, 

Catalpa Aphis, Black Walnut Aphis. 

The balance feed on plants, and the only 
thing- that holds them in check is their nat- 
ural enemy — the Lady-bug, Syrphus flies. 
Lace wing flies and Parasitic flies. 

TREATMENT OF APHIS. 

WMiere woolly aphis is working on the rtjot 
of a tree \ou dissolve j_. 11). of Ivye in 4 
gallons of water, dig the dirt away from the 
root next to the stem, and pour the solution 
around the roots of the tree, bv wrapping 
a stalk of lon^ ^reen tobacco around the stem 
of the tree in the spring, the Aphis will not 
come up. To eradicate the Aphis working 
on the foliage, use formula number two. 

W^herever Aj)his are found working on a 
tree yon will see an abundance of ants, as 
they feed on the houey-due and flght the 
natural enemies of the Aphis away. Ants 
can be eradicated by punching holes in the 
mound and nest and inserting about a table- 
spoon of bi-sulphide of carbon in each hole. 
Kill the hole with earth. Caution must be 
used with this remedy as it is explosi\'e. 



132 THE FRUIT CiROWER'S GUIDE 

THE COCCINELLIDAE. 

(Natural enemies of the a])liis, for whose description 
I am again indebted to Smith's Economic Entomology. ) 

The next family meriting attention from 
its economic interest is the Coccinellidae, or, 
as the species are commonly called, "lady 
bngs" or "lady birds." Scientifically these 
insects are distinguished by having the tarsi 
three-jointed only; bnt practically they are 
recognized by their oval or round form — al- 
ways convex, sometimes almost hemispheri- 
cal, and by their colors, which are either 
of some shade of red with black spots and 
markings, or black with red or yellow spots. 
The species are never large, sometimes very 
small; bnt in almost all cases are predaceons, 
their prey consisting of chiefly plant lice or 
scale insects. 

The larva, which have the same feeding 
habits, are nsnally fnsiform, with a small 
head and quite long legs. They are often 
prettily colored, sometimes with spiny warts 
or processes, and may be seen running about 
wherever plant lice abound. Patches of fif- 
teen to forty of the yellow eggs laid by the 
beetles are often seen in abundance on in- 
fected plants. 

The species of Alegilla and Hippoda- 
mia are more oval and less convex than 



THK FRUIT grower's GUIDK 133 

usual, aud some of tlieui have been found 
feeding on pollen or even seeds when their 
natural prey was scarce; yet I have observed 
these same species doing yeoman's work in 
the destruction of plant lice on melon vines. 

The general Adalia and Coccinella contain 
the more hemispherical types, and among 
the most common are the "9-spotted lady 
bird," Coccinella 9-notata, which is one of 
the largest species, and the "2-spotted 
lady bird," Adalia Hipuncta, which is the 
smaller, and perhaps more frequently seen in 
the gardens and even homes. Among the 
largest of our forms is the "15-spotted lady 
bird," Anatis 15-punctata, interesting from 
its color variations, ranging from creamy 
white with black distinct spots to uniform 
mahogany brown. 

Opening quite a distinct series of specie.";, 
which are black with red or yellow spots, is 
the "twice stabbed lady bird," Chilocorus 
bivulnerus, in which the larvae is spiny. 
This is black, almost hemispherical, with a 
somewhat ovate red spot on each wing cover, 
and is found throughout the United States. 
Its chief food, in the larvae as well as the 
adult stage, consists of scale insects, and it is 
one of the most effective checks of that kind 



of plant pest, uiuler favorable circumstances 
lidding individual trees completely. 

We have other similar but smaller species, 
sometimes with numerous yellow spots on 
the wing covers, and most ot them have the 
scale eating habit to a greater or less extent. 
The species of Pentila are uniformK' black 
and very small, less in size than most of the 
scale insects upon which they prey; but they, 
as well as their minute spiny larvae, arc great 
feeders, especially upon the eggs and larvae. 
The destructive vSan Jose scale has no more 
]iersistent, effecti\-e enemv than this kind ot 
lad)' bird. 

The species of Scymnus are also small, 
usually recognizal)le !)>• their fine pubescent 
or hairy clothing and black colors. There is 
a tendency to redtipped wings, covers or red 
thorax, and these forms also prey largely 
u])on scales. To this family belong the Aus- 
tralian species of Vedalia, (_)rcus, and Rhizo- 
bius, introduced to destroy the also imported 
"cottony cushion scale," Iceryapnrchasi. 
The relation of these species has already been 
discussed when speaking of the scale. 

There arc few rules without exceptions, 
and so we find sinners among the "lady 
birds" also — all belonging to the genus 
l^pilachne. The species are large, hcmi- 



THK FRUIT CxROWER'S GUIDK I35 

splieiical, and yellow with black spots. The 
larvae are also yellow, elongate oval, with 
long branched spine. E. borealis is the 
Northern and Eastern species attacking cn- 
cnniber, melon, and similar vines, while E. 
corrnpta is fonnd in the West and South- 
west, injuring beans. A curious feature in 
E. borealis is the manner in which the adult 
marks out a circle at the edge of a leaf and 
feeds within it until all usable tissue is ex- 
hausted, before proceeding to another place 
to repeat the operation. 

As these injurious species feed openly in all 
stages, they can be reached without trouble 
by any of the arsenites. 

SVRPHIDS. 

Syr])hids is often composed of spurred and 
branched hair similar to that found in bees, 
and in the "dronefly" this character is espe- 
cially marked. 

As widely divergent as the flies themselves 
are larvae and their feeding habits. In fact, 
there is no sort of agreement; and while 
some are predaceous, feeding upon plant lice 
or other insects, many feed on living or de- 
ca)ing vegetable substances, or in the foulest 
excrementitious material. Tliose forms that 
most concern the agriculturist are the feeders 
on ])laut lice, and these may be found at 



136 THK FRUIT r.KOWKR'S CUIDH 

almost any time during the summer in almost 
every aphid colony, busily engaged in lessen- 
ing its numbers. The larvae are easily over- 
looked, as they are usually green or yellowish 
in color, like the insect among which they 
feed. They are wrinkled and hairy when 
examined with a magnifyiug glass, soft in 
texture, thickened behind, and tapering al- 
most to a point at the head which is marked 
{^nh- by a ])air of hooks and a little circular 
ojiening representing the mouth. They have 
110 legs and move b\- extending the body tor- 
ward as far as possible, then clinging with 
the anterior segments to the leaf or twig, 
and drawing the balance to meet the head. 
Awkwardly as they move, however, their 
progress is yet sufficiently rapid for their 
purpose. When once a larvae has established 
itself in a colony of plant lice, it never stirs 
until all in its immediate vicinity arc de- 
stroyed; it then nu)ves only far enough to 
])ring into reach additional i)rey, and so con- 
tinues until no more remain. 

The female lays her eggs close to, or 
actuallv among, an aphid colony, so that the 
larvae finds food ready at hand as soon as it 
is hatched. It grasps a plant louse with the 
mouth's part, lifts it from the surface, and 
sucks its juices, leaving the creature to strug- 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 137 

gle for awhile, helplessly kicking its legs in 
mid air. When the jnices are exhausted the. 
empty shell is dropped and another specimen 
is taken. When full grown, the larvae draws 
itself up into a humped mass; the outer skins 
harden, darkens in color, and forms an ap- 
parently solid covering or coarctate pupa, be- 
neath which the true or soft pupa of the flv 
is formed. Several broods of these predace- 
ous flies occur in the course of the season, and 
they are among the most important checks 
that natnre has provided against plant-lice 
increase. 

THE HEMEROBIIDAE. 

The Hemerobiidae, which contains numer- 
ous specimens of interest, are all of them 
predaceous and beneficial to the farmer. 
There are several sub-families, which to- 
gether are termed "lace winged flies," from 
their delicate, finely reticulated or netted 
wings, which lie flat and are not folded. The 
insects are slight, and in the species allied to 
Hemerobius the colors are brownish or 
smokey. They are less common than the 
forms allied to Chrysopa, which are green, 
with long antennae and prominent, bright, 
yellowish-brown eyes, which have given 
them the name "golden eyed flies" in some 
localities. They are commonly found in 



IT,^ THK FRUIT GROWKR'S CUIDK 

fields or along the edges of woods, and emit, 
when handled, a peculiar sickening odor 
which is quite unmistakable when once 
known. In the adult stage the insects feed 
little or not at all; but the larvae, known as 
"aphis lions," feed almost constantly, their 
prey being small, soft bodied insects of all 
kinds, a})hids or plant lice ranking as special 
fuorites. 

The entire life histor\- of the insect is in- 
teresting. The female in oviposing touches 
the end of the abdomen to the surface — usu- 
ally a leaf — u})on which the eggs are to be 
laid, and then elex'ates her bodv about a 
quarter of an inch, emitting at the same time 
a viscid thread which hardens on exposure to 
the air. At the tip of this the egg is fas- 
tened, and we thus get a little grove of eggs 
on stilts. This is supposed to insure their 
safety from wandering predaceous forms that 
might otherwise feed upon them. When the 
larvae hatches it climbs down the slender 
thread, and attacks and feeds upon the first 
suitable specimen it can find — usually a 
young plant louse. Now, here is ar.other 
peculiarity, it does not chew or tear its prey, 
but holds it firmly, sucking the juices by 
means of grooves on the inner side of the 
lar^e mandibles which are closed bv the 



THK FRUIT (;R0WKR'S GUIDK 1 39 

slender maxillae. The larvae grows rapidly, 
becoming rather more than a quarter of an 
inch in length, narrow, spindle shaped, 
pointed at the anal extremity, the head dis- 
tinct with prominent sickle shaped mandi- 
bles. When fnll grown, it spins by means 
of anal glands, a perfectly spherical, white, 
silken cocoon of very dense textnre, and 
small in proportion to the larvae. It re- 
sembles a moderate size pearl in form and 
appearance, and when the adnlt is readv to 
emerge, a circular lid is lifted off to gi\e the 
matured pupa exit. Comparing the fully 
developed insect with the cocoon from which 
it issued, the marvel is great that it was ever 
packed away in so small a space. 

These insects are really of much practical 
value, frequenting, as many of them do, tilled 
fields and orchards, feeding upon larvae, plant 
lice, and similar creatures. Thev become in- 
jurious, however, in some parts of California, 
where they attack and destroy coocinellid or 
lady bird larvae. 

Somewhat closely allied in all stages to the 
Hemerobiidae are the Myrmeleonidae, or 
"ant-lions," but they are larger, with longer 
and narrower wings, and clubbed antennae. 
As before, the adults are graceful, harmless 
creatures, which fly mostly at night, while 



I40 



TIIK FRTMT (tROWKR S CUIDK 



the larvae are predatory, re.senil)lin(;- the 
"aphis lions/' in structure, save that they 
are broader and chunkier in appearance. 
They are also peculiar in that nianv of them 
ca])ture their pra\- in pits or trajxs. 

In constructino- its tra]), the larvae usually 
selects a spot of uuxlerately compact fine 
sand, and excavates a funnel shaped pit with 
sides as steep as the sand will lie. It remains 
buried and in\-isible in a little _<;allerv at one 
side of the bottom, in wait for anv unlucky 
creature that may come within reach. Ants 
are the nu^st frequent \-ictims from their 
wanderin;^ habits and a teudencv to investi- 
i;ate, a j^ause at the brink resulting in a slip 
of sand and a tumble into the jaws of the en- 
cm\-. vShould the ant recox'cr a footiu_i;- be- 
fore reachin<^ the bottom, a shower of sand, 
sent by the vigilent larvae below, ox'crwhelms 
and brings it down to its death. When the 
juices are exhausted, the emj^ty shell is thrown 
out of the pit and it is repaired lor other vic- 
tims. Sometimes pits are made in sawdust 
or friable leaf mould and some make no pits 
at all. 

The adults are of two rather distinct series; 
the hrst with short antennae which thicken 
rather gradually toward the tip, including 
Myrmeleo; the second, with long, slender 



THE FRUIT grower's GUIDE 141 

antennae, enlarging snddenly into a flattened 
club. The head is larger and the bod\- more 
robust, covered with stiff, bristley hair, giv- 
ing the insect a fierce appearance. The most 
common genus is Ascalaphus, and the larvae 
habits are not known, though it is probable, 
from what we learn of foreign species, that 
they do not build pits or traps. Though in- 
teresting the family is of no economic im- 
portance. 

STRAWBERRY ROOT-BORER. 

(Wicksoii's California Fruit.) 
The larvae of another clear winged moth 
(Aegeria impropria), boring into the root of 
strawberry plants, found in various portions 
of the State, and doing considerable damage, 
forcing the growers to resort to replanting 
much earlier than would otherwise be neces- 
sary. Flooding the vines has a great tend- 
ency to kill out the worms, and if the water 
was retained, say four or five days dnring the 
winter, all over the plants, doubtless all of 
the larvae would l)e killed. 

CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY BORER. 

A white worm eating out the central pith 
of currant and gooseberry plants — the larvae 
of another clear winged moth (Aegeria 
tipuliformisi. Spraying with whale oil soup 



142 Tin-: I'RriT vaiowkrs guidk 

ai'lcr the crop is oathered, pniniii^ oiil and 
hnniinj^ in the fall of all oU1 wood which can 
])c spared, will reduce the evil. 

TIIK ACRii.rs. 

i vSinith's I'lcoiioiiiio I'intoiiiolojry. ") 

The i^enus A_^rihis contains s[)ecies dilTer- 

ini; from an\' of those heretofore mentioned 

1)\- their slender, cNJindrioal form, the head 




s(piarel\- truncate, or cut off in front, the 
elytra much naiiowed at tip. As a rule, 
these species are dull brcnvnish bronze in color, 
the i)ro thorax sometimes brassx or red -bronzed, 
and none is better known than the ''red-necked 
blackberry borer," A»;rilus ruficollis, the 
author of the '\L;i)ut\- j^all" on that plan. 
The lar\a in this i;enus are usually Ion*;' and 
llattened, the segments strou_<^l\- marked, the 
''head" not much wider than the body, and the 
anal forks distinct, differing- in each species. 
ReLurninj;- to the l)lackberrv borer, it is 
i;ood j:)ractice t(j cut out all i^alied canes early 



THE FRUIT C-xROWHk'S GUI UK 1 43 

ill spring and burn them. Triniiiiing- is done 
at this time as a matter of regular cultiva- 
tion, and the galls are then easily seen. Xo 
"galled" cane can ever ripen a fair set of 
berries, and it might as well be cut out at 
once. Another satisfactory method is to cut 
off all the new shoots at the surface of the 
ground about the end of June. At this time 
all of the beetles have laid their eggs, and 
the shoots which come up in July cannot be- 
come infested. The best results will l)e ob- 
tained by combining both methods. Cutting 
the new shoots causes the death of the vouiig 
larvae, which are unable to subsist on dead 
wood, and ()eing footless are unable to mi- 
grate to new stalks. 

ANTIIONO.MU.S SKIXATUS. 

The A. signatus, or the "strawl)erry 
weevil," which aj)pears as a small, blackish 
beetle, with gray pubescence, when the buds 
are developing, and lays and egg in each, 
afterward puncturing the flower stalk below 
the bud so as to check development. The 
larva feeds upon the pollen in the unopened 
bud, and finds it sufficient to attain its full 
growth, changing to a beetle in midsummer. 
The insect attacks a number of other flowers 
iu the same way, not even confining itself to 



144 '^'^^^ FRUIT grower's guide 

one natural family, and its injury to straw- 
berries is of a somewhat intermittent charac- 
ter, l)ecoming worse for a number of )'ears, 
then stoppin*^ suddenly for no apparent rea- 
son. Only staminate, or pollen bearing' 
X'arieties are attacked, and the Sharpless is, 
perhaps, the most seriously infested. By 
planting chiefly pistillate varieties, the stam- 
inate rows mav be protected l)y cheap cover- 
ings until the buds are ready to open, and 
e\en if a small crop only is obtained on the 
pollenizcrs, the main crop will be safe with- 
out protection. Insecticides have not proved 
markedh- useful in this case. 



THI: MEYEPS O. K. 
SPPAY PUMP 



Sox IHot, Gol^ or anv 
Ifjliitt of /llbiyturc 



The cylinder is what is known as the 
Ram Plunger, made of a solid brass tube 
with a closed end, which passes through a 
circular hemp packing, which adapts it 
for pumping hot, cold or any kind of mix- 
ture. 

The valve and seat are made of ordinary 
brass, ground in bevel shape. 

Fitted for two strings of hose you can 
get up pressure of 200 pounds or more. 

Has mechanical ai^itator. 



mc Sell ITbein in 36oi5c. 

Mitcliell Lewis & Staver Co. 



FAIRBANKS, MORSE k CO. 

SALT LAKE CITY BRANCH. 



FRUIT SPRAYING 
MACHINERY 

HLL OUR PUMPvSHAVE MRTALUC 
valves and Metallic or Asbestos 
plungers. Will pump HOT or cold 
liquid. Small pumps for hand spraying. 
Pumps connected to 2 H. P. Engine on 
same base. Can be put in farm wagon. 
Larger pumps and engines can be mount- 
ed on farm trucks. Three car-loads of 
our Fruit Spraying Machines sold at 
Grand Junction, Colorado, this season. 
Recommended and endorsed b}* Fruit 
Inspectors in Colorado and Idaho. : : 



CALL ON OR ADDRESS 

G. T. INGERSOLL 

Room 3, Merino Block. Box 307. 
BOISE, IDAHO. 



/ recommend the Fairbanks- Morse Putnps for 
Fruit Spraying.— B. F. HCRST. 



J. R GOOD C. H ROBERTS J. E. SCHOOL ER 

GOOD, ROBERTS & 
SCHOOLER 

Re al Estat e and Iiu^iients 

BANK OF COMMERCE BUILDING 
BOISE, IDAHO 



We make a specialty of furnishing in- 
formation to non-residents with reference 
to the country and its resources, and have 
a fine list of farms, orchards and city prop- 
erty, and we make special efforts to locate 
investors and persons desiring a home in 
"Boise the Beautiful," ot Boise Valley, 
"The Garden of the World." 



/ am personally acquainted zvilh the above firm, 
and lake pleasure in recommending Ihein as reliable 
oenilemen ivith zvhom to do business. — B. F. HCRST. 



Spray and Dip 

Dip and Spray 



To vSpray your Trees Properlj' you will need good 

Pure Sulphur 

WE HAVE IT AT THE RIGHT PRICE 



To Dip your Sheep Properly you need good 

Pure Sulphur 

WE HAVE IT AT THE RIGHT PRICE 



Also Sulphur, Lime and Salt 

AT RIGHT PRICES. 



THE FALK MERCANTILE CO. 

LIMITED. 

Boise's Bim^st, Best and Busiest Store. 



Carlson -Liisk Hardware Co. 



BOISE. IDAHO. 



SOLE AGENTvS FOR THE 

STAHL SPRAY PUMP 

Guaranteed to be the best pump on the 
market. The)' are fitted with asbestos 
composition washers, which causes the 
heat to have no effect upon them. We 
carry them in all sizes, from the small 
bucket pump to the large power outfit. 

^'TEMPEST" 
Seven=Ply Spray Hose 

This is made expressly for spray purposes 
and will stand pressure of five hundred 
pounds. :::::::::::: 
BORDEAUX AND SAN JOSE NOZZLES 

SULPHUR, LIME AND SALT. 

In fact everything needed by the 
Horticulturist. 

CARLSON-LUSK HARDWAKE COMPANY 

MAIN STRKKT AT KIGHTH. 



OCT 36 ^90^ 



R. A. CowDKN, I'res. 
T. A. Si.oAN, \'ice-Pres. and IManayer. 



IDAHO IMPLEMENT COMPANY 



LIMITED. 
BOISH:, IDAHO. 



BUGGIES AND CARRIAGES. 

Peter vSchuttler Wagor.s 

Stmlebakcr Wagons and Bnggies 
Harness, Whips and Robes 
Cntlers and Bob vSleds 

Agents for Ellwood Fencing 

INIcCorinick Binders, Mowers and Rakes 

John Deere Plows, Marrows and Pnlverizers 
Threshers, I^ngines and Hay Presses 

Wind Mills, Pninps and Hay Tools 



We are Agents for 

WILLIAM STAHL SPRAllNG PUMPS 

and keep a fnll stock of I'ixtnres on hand. 



*i il7 



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BINDERY INC. ^i^ '^^'^^ ^ ^ ^.^fe "^ 

. NOV 84 I ^4- ' 



NOV 84 :,<^: ^Q^ '^.i#: 

N.MANCHESTER. >~^^* ,^0 ^i. .^^^^^,* ^^ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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